Delhi Sultanate: Rulers and History

• Delhi became important only in the twelfth century

Delhi as a Capital

• Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs
• The Tomaras were defeated in the mid-twelfth century by the Chauhans of Ajmer
• Delhi became an important commercial center under the Tomaras and Chauhans
• Many rich Jaina merchants lived there and built temples

Coins

• Coins minted in Delhi, called dehliwal, had wide circulation

Delhi Sultanate

• Delhi's transformation into a capital controlling vast areas began with the Delhi Sultanate's foundation in the early thirteenth century
• The Delhi Sultans built several cities in the area now known as Delhi, including Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, and Jahanpanah

Rulers of Delhi

• Rajput Dynasties:
  • Tomaras were from the early twelfth century to 1165
  • Ananga Pala reigned 1130-1145
  • Chauhans reigned 1165-1192
  • Prithviraj Chauhan reigned 1175-1192
• Early Turkish Rulers:
  • Qutbuddin Aybak reigned 1206-1210
  • Shamsuddin Iltutmish reigned 1210-1236
  • Raziyya reigned 1236-1240
  • Ghiyasuddin Balban reigned 1266-1287
• Khalji Dynasty reigned 1290-1320
  • Jalaluddin Khalji reigned 1290-1296
  • Alauddin Khalji reigned 1296-1316
• Tughluq Dynasty reigned 1320-1414
  • Ghiyasuddin Tughluq reigned 1320-1324
  • Muhammad Tughluq reigned 1324-1351
  • Firuz Shah Tughluq reigned 1351-1388
• Sayyid Dynasty reigned 1414-1451
  • Khizr Khan reigned 1414-1421
• Lodi Dynasty reigned 1451-1526
  • Bahlul Lodi reigned 1451-1489

Tarikh/Tawarikh

• Histories are known as tarikh (singular) or tawarikh (plural)
• They were written in Persian, the Delhi Sultans' administration language
• Authors were learned men: secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers.
• They recounted events, advised rulers on governance, and emphasized justice
• Authors lived mainly in Delhi and rarely in villages
• They wrote for Sultans hoping for rewards
• They advised rulers to preserve an ideal social order based on birthright and gender distinctions

Raziyya

• In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish's daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan
• Minhaj-us-Siraj, a chronicler, acknowledged her abilities but was uncomfortable with a queen ruling
• Nobles were unhappy with her independent rule
• She was removed from the throne in 1240

Slave Officials

• The Delhi Sultanate needed reliable governors and administrators
• Early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favored purchased slaves called bandagan for military service
• They were trained for important political offices due to their dependence on the Sultan
• The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued using bandagan and elevated clients of humble origins to high positions
• This introduced political instability because slaves and clients were loyal to their masters, not their heirs
• New monarchs often faced conflict between the old and new nobility

Criticism of Promotions

• Many elites and Persian tawarikh authors criticized the Delhi Sultans for appointing "low and base-born" individuals
• Sultan Muhammad Tughluq appointed individuals like a wine distiller, barber, cook, and gardeners to high posts
• Ziyauddin Barani saw these appointments as a sign of the Sultan's poor judgment and inability to rule

Iqta System

• Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories (iqta)
• The holder of an iqta was called iqtadar or muqti

Responsibilities

• The Muqtis lead military campaigns and maintain law and order
• In return, they collected revenues as salary and paid their soldiers
• Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and if they rotated regularly
• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq rigorously enforced these conditions
• The state appointed accountants to check revenue collection by the muqtis
• The muqti had to collect only state-prescribed taxes and maintain the required number of soldiers

Revenue Collection/Taxes

• The Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland under control and forced landed chieftains to accept their authority
• Alauddin Khalji brought assessment and collection of land revenue under state control
• The rights of local chieftains to levy taxes were cancelled and they were forced to pay taxes
• The Sultan's administrators measured land and kept accounts
• Some old chieftains and landlords became revenue collectors and assessors

Types of Taxes

• Kharaj: Tax on cultivation, about 50% of the peasant's produce
• Taxes on cattle
• Taxes on houses
• Khums: One-fifth of war booty and mines/treasure trove-
• Zakat: Religious duty for Muslims, 2.5% of annual savings for the needy and travelers
  • The practice was started by the Prophet Muhammad but Firuz Shah Tughlaq collected it as a regular tax with a separate account
• Jizyah: Tax on non-Muslims (zimmis or protected people), initially collected with land tax (kharaj) but Firuz Shah Tughlaq collected it separately. The status of zimmis are people who had been given protection from the state

Limitations of the Sultanate

• Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the Delhi Sultans' control
• Distant provinces like Bengal easily became independent
• Even in the Gangetic plain, forested areas were difficult to penetrate

Local Landowners

• Local chieftains established their rule in those regions
• Rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq could sometimes control these areas for short periods

Fortifications

• Chieftains fortified themselves in mountains, rocky places, and bamboo groves
• Bamboo groves served as ramparts as they were strong

Mongol Invasions

• The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in 1219, leading to Delhi Sultanate coming under the attack
• Attacks increased during Alauddin Khalji's reign and Muhammad Tughluq's early years. This forced the rulers to mobilize a big army in Delhi

Rule after Tughluqs

• After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526
• Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and south India had independent rulers who established states and capitals

Rising groups

• The period also saw the rise of new ruling groups like the Afghans and Rajputs
• Some of the states were small but powerful and well-administered

Sher Shah Suri

• Sher Shah Sur (1540–1545) started as a manager in Bihar, defeated Mughal emperor Humayun, and captured Delhi
• The Sur dynasty introduced an efficient administration borrowed from Alauddin Khalji
• Sher Shah's administration was a model for Emperor Akbar