Deep Sea Ecology Quiz

Marine Sciences III: Oceans of the Future

• The presentation covers marine sciences, focusing on the future of the oceans.
• Organizations like NIOZ, NIOO, and Naturalis Biodiversity Center are mentioned.
• Images of futuristic underwater structures and maps are included.
• Different aspects of the deep sea are detailed, including biology and mining.
• A satellite observed a massive, milky sea, a phenomenon documented since the 17th century.
• A new species of sea snail, Rapana venosa, has been found in Dutch coastal waters.
• The presentation discusses the deep sea's biology and the potential impact of deep-seabed mining.

News of the Day

• A satellite detected a milky-white area in the sea, noted in ship's logs since the 17th century.
• The phenomenon was observed by a weather satellite.
• A new species of sea snail, Rapana venosa, was found in Dutch coastal waters.
• Its origin is traced to the Yellow Sea and the Japan Sea but has since been discovered in the Adriatic Sea and off the coast of Brittany.

Deep-sea biology and deep-seabed mining

• Deep-sea biology and deep-seabed mining are discussed together.

The deep sea

• Ninety-two percent of the ocean floor is below 200 meters.
• Half of the ocean is below 3000m, with an average depth of 3800m.
• The abyssal plain, seamounts, continental margins, whale falls, and mid-ocean ridges are diverse deep-sea environments.
• The deep sea includes various ecosystems.
• The deep sea has distinctive characteristics such as low light, high pressure, low temperature (2 degrees Celsius), stable temperatures, and weak currents.

The Abyssal Plains

• Sedimentation rates in abyssal plains are generally very slow.
• Abyssal plains habitats are sensitive to disturbances.
• Trawling of polymetallic nodules is a potential future disruption (nodule growth rate is 1-4 mm per one million years).

The Ocean

• The ocean is divided into zones based on depth and light penetration.
• Key factors, such as biomass, light, and temperature, are varied along the depth gradient.

The Deep Sea - Characteristics

• The deep sea has limited light.
• High pressure exists in the deep sea.
• Deep-sea temperatures are consistently low, at 2 degrees Celsius.
• The temperature remains stable in the deep sea.
• Weak currents are found in the deep sea.
• Food availability is low in the deep sea.

The Deep Sea - More Than One Ecosystem

• The deep sea is not a single ecosystem; it comprises different environments like abyssal plains, seamounts, continental margins, and mid-ocean ridges.
• Specific features of these environments, like canyons, cold seeps, whale falls, and hydrothermal vents, characterize their ecosystems.

The Abyssal Plains & Polymetallic Nodules

• The abyssal plain is a primary environment for the presence of polymetallic nodules.
• Polymetallic nodules form slowly, at millimeter per million years and are abundant in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, but contain potentially higher amounts of manganese, nickel, and cobalt than land-based reserves.

The Abyssal Plains - A Stable Ecosystem

• Sedimentation rates in the deep sea are typically measured in millimeters per thousand years; they're significantly slower than sedimentation near river mouths.
• Deep-ocean ecosystems are highly sensitive to disturbances due to their slow rates of recovery.
• Human activities like trawling of polymetallic nodules (at rates of 1-4 mm per one million years) pose a considerable risk to these fragile ecosystems.

Biological Pump - Deposition on the Sea Floor

• Zooplankton fecal pellets along with marine snow, and phytodetritus make up a crucial part of the ocean's biological pump.
• These materials sink to the seafloor, carrying organic carbon and nutrients down through the water column.

The Deep Sea - High Diversity

• The Census of Marine Life (2000-2010) collected over 30 million observations, estimated about 250,000 known marine species.
• An additional 6,000 new species were discovered and documented during this period, and more new species have since been described.
• Knowledge of deep-sea species is inversely related to the depth.

Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar)

• CeDAMar focuses on the diversity of species in abyssal marine life and the factors influencing it, including their distribution and habitat size.
• Key areas of research and importance, and questions about numbers are still being investigated.

Biodiversity and Connectivity

• The discussion focuses on the biodiversity and connections in the deep sea.
• Images of diverse deep-sea organisms are part of this section.

Biodiversity — What and How Many Species Do We Find?

• There are a significant number of unknown megafauna morpho-species.
• In an area of the UK, there are 170 unique species in the megafauna morphospecies group of the deep sea.

Species Ranges — Where Do We Find Which Species?

• Species distribution and ranges are examined to determine the extent of their presence.
• A smaller area (300,000 km²) may contain fewer records (4) than a larger area (300,000 km², 182,939) for a particular species.

Species Ranges — Where Do We Find Which Species?

• Many species display a clear preference for a specific geographic area.
• Only 49% of a specific group of organisms can be found in all five specific locations studied.
• Polychaetes are a group of marine annelids that have been explored in various studies of animal distribution.

How Are Populations Connected?

• The connectivity between populations is a factor studied in relation to species ranges.
• The relationship between population proximity and other environmental factors, such as POC levels, helps to explain population interactions and influences.

Abyssal Plains

• Abyssal plains are characterized by a lack of light and stable low temperatures.
• Food sources for the abyssal plains originate from surface waters.
• These plains exhibit low productivity, low faunal biomass, and high diversity.

The Deep Sea — Energy Input

• The deep sea has multiple sources of energy input, including hydrothermal vents, chemosynthetic ecosystems, and detritus-based ecosystems.
• The energy flow in the deep sea is primarily driven by hydrothermal vent activity and detritus-based ecosystems.

Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents

• Energy-rich, reduced, and hot fluids emanate from the deep sea floor.
• High-temperature fluids and chemical composition vary between locations.

Video of a Black Smoker from Lau Basin (from Fisher)

• This section includes a video of black smokers.
• The variability of vent fluids (in terms of temperature and chemical composition) is highlighted.

Global distribution of hydrothermal vent fields

• Map showing known hydrothermal vents around the world.
• Shows active (red) and inferred (yellow) vent fields.

Communities at hydrothermal vents

• First-level primary producers in hydrothermal vent ecosystems are primarily autotrophic bacteria, with symbiotic relationships with other organisms.
• The second level includes deposit feeders and suspension feeders.
• The tertiary level has secondary consumers involving predators and scavengers.

The unique endemic fauna at active hydrothermal vents is dependent on chemosynthesis.

• Shrimp (Rimicaris exoculata) and Mussels (Bathymodiolus spp.) are prominent examples of communities that depend on chemosynthesis.

Bacteria in symbiosis with macrofauna

• The hot environment of hydrothermal vents supports symbiotic relationships between organisms and bacteria.
• Examples of organisms include Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompeijana) and Mussel (Bathymodiolus spp.).

How is an animal taking up symbionts?

• Organisms acquire symbionts in different ways, including vertical transmission (from parent to offspring) and horizontal transmission (from environment).

Associated macrofauna

• The associated fauna includes deposit feeders (limpets and polychaetes), suspension feeders (barnacles and anemones), and predators and scavengers (crabs and fish).

A community at low flow Lau Basin vents

• A snapshot view of the vent community shows the abundance of different species living in the area.
• Movie crabs and predation are noted as significant parts of the ecosystem.

Every vent field is unique at MAR

• Images showing various unique vent fields illustrate variation across the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge.

Biogeographic Provinces: Macrofauna - Foundation Species

• The distribution of deep-sea organisms across different geographic regions is explored to understand and classify them.
• Key factors in the evolution of these populations, including the specific physical characteristics of the regions, are discussed.

Dispersal in a patch environment

• The dispersal of deep-sea organisms across different geographic areas is considered to understand their connection.
• Various factors, including larval transport distances and local currents, are influencing their movement.

Connectivity in a patchy environment

• The distance needed for larvae connection, accounting for currents and larval lifespan, is investigated.
• The distance separating hydrothermal vent fields is analyzed.

Dispersal in a patchy environment: additional pathways?

• Additional channels of dispersion for deep-sea organisms, such as bottom currents, are identified and illustrated through a diagram.

July 2023: the discovery of the underworld of hydrothermal vents!

• The discovery of microbes, tubeworms, bristle worms, and snails in a cave system within hydrothermal vent fields underscores the existence of life in the subsurface.

Proposed connectivity model between seafloor surface and crustal subseafloor hydrothermal vents

• A diagram illustrating the potential connectivity between seafloor surfaces and hydrothermal vents within the subsurface is examined.

Whole series of videos from expedition open accessible

• Videos are available to the public and provide access to the hydrothermal vent environments.
• The videos are categorized into different segments, including details of travel into the vents and highlights of ROV footage.

Active vent field: with active and inactive mounds/chimneys

• Images of active and inactive hydrothermal vent fields are shown, exhibiting their architectural variability and flow patterns.

Ecological connectivity – Polymetallic Sulfides at Hydrothermal Vents

• The connection between active and inactive hydrothermal vent fields and the effects of the associated plumes and productivity is analyzed.

Resilience of benthic communities at polymetallic sulfides: vent surrounding areas & senescent vents

• This section covers the resilience of benthic communities to polymetallic sulfides, both in active vent areas and in areas surrounding inactive vents.
• Shared species within active and inactive vent areas and populations are highlighted.

Resilience of benthic communities at polymetallic sulfides: vent surrounding areas

• This section examines the influence of vent fluids on the distribution and abundance of consumers in the vicinity of Rainbow vent fields.
• The presence of copepods, polychaetes, and nematodes, and the associated 813C values are reported.

Fauna at inactive and extinct vents

• Knowledge about the fauna in inactive and extinct hydrothermal vents is very limited.
• Examples of organisms found in these vents include hydroids, anemones, barnacles, sponges, corals, lobsters, and holothurians.

The vent ecosystem and its biodiversity

• Active vent fields are characterized by high biodiversity and a close spatial relationship among the different elements of the ecosystem.
• Inactive vent fields display generally lower biodiversity indices.

Abyssal plains / Hot vents

• A comparison of abyssal plains and hot vents highlights their differences, including light availability, temperature stability, food sources, and faunal biomass.

Global increasing demand for minerals

• The increasing demand for minerals, and the necessity for extraction materials like zinc, iron, silver, and gold are underscored.
• The images in this section portray electronic devices (e.g., tablets and smartphones) and electric vehicles, underscoring the high demand for minerals needed for these products.

Deep-sea mineral resources

• A map depicts global exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulfides, and cobalt-rich crusts.
• The different types of deep-sea mineral resources and the regions where they are found are discussed.

Polymetallic Nodules

• Polymetallic nodules have metal concentrations that potentially exceed those found in land-based reserves but are slowly growing, at rates of millimeters per million years.
• Their distribution and abundance in specific areas, like the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and the Peru Basin, are characterized.

Variability in nodule abundance within the Clarion-Clipperton Zone

• Variability in nodule distribution and abundance exists within the Clarion-Clipperton Zone.
• Distinct nodule sizes and concentrations are illustrated.

Nodule growth rate from core to rim

• The growth of nodules from the core to the rim is shown, plotted against time.

Average abundance of nodules

• Variability of nodule abundance is mapped out across different geographic areas.
• Distribution patterns and abundance values (in kilograms per m²) for the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Peru Basin, Indian Ocean, and Cook Islands are displayed.

Polymetallic Sulfides

• Polymetallic sulfides form on or below the seabed and are associated with hydrothermal vents located in mid-ocean ridges and back-arc basins.
• Images of polymetallic sulfides are displayed, showing the variety of their morphology and composition.

Mining impact on abyssal plains

• Illustration showing what the deep-sea floor in an abyssal plain may look like.

Environmental impacts and risks of deep-sea mining

• Test-mining of polymetallic nodules in a Belgian and German Exploration Area in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in 2021 and other operations have been carried out to study the impacts of mining.
• Observations of plume dispersal and recovery after test-mining are documented.

Patania 2 impact: CCZ 2021

• Images of pre-impact, direct impact, and indirect impact sites are presented.

26yr old test-mining track

• The long-term effects of mining are evident in the photograph of a test-mining track.

Impaired microbial loop after 26 years

• The effect of mining on the microbial loop is observed using nematode density measures.

Nodules required to preserve abyssal epifauna

• Images show the presence/absence of epifauna on top of polymetallic nodules in various areas (e.g. Clarion-Clipperton Zone).
• It demonstrates differences in epifaunal communities.

Deployment of >100 experiments

• The deployment of over 100 experiments in BGR, GSR, and other areas is reported, demonstrating the continued scientific study of the impact of mining activity.

Exploration licenses - sulfides

• A global map is presented with exploration licenses showing the distribution of polymetallic sulfides, including regions within and beyond national jurisdiction (e.g., areas in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge).

Bulk cutter (Nautilus minerals)

• A picture of the bulk cutter used for harvesting polymetallic sulfides is displayed.

Test mining in national waters (2017)

• Details of test mining activities occurring in Japan's national waters in 2017 are elaborated.
• The video link to the test mining in Okinawa is provided.

Expected impact of mining on the marine environment

• The expected impact of mining is described.
• The possibility of long-term, large-scale, and substantial environmental effects on the seafloor and organisms is recognized.

Mitigation

• A mitigation hierarchy is presented to address environmental impact risks.
• Four mitigation strategies (avoidance, minimization, rehabilitation/restoration, and biodiversity offsetting) are proposed.

Regional Environmental Management Plans (REMPs)

• Regional plans to protect the deep sea from a multitude of impacts and disturbances are described.
• The plans provide structure to guide future development activities in the region.

Removal of nodules

• Considerations about the consequences of removing polymetallic nodules on the related ecosystem over geological time scales are examined.

Deployment of >100 experiments

• Experiments on polymetallic nodules and related areas, conducted by relevant organizations, are displayed. These experiments are explained in terms of supporting research.

Unique vent fields along nMAR

• A map showing unique vent fields along nMAR (North Mid-Atlantic Ridge) is presented, along with their locations and need for protection.

Unique vent fields in the Indian Ocean

• A map showing unique vent fields along the Indian Ocean is shown, together with their locations and need for protection. A table summarizes the fields.

Application of scientific criteria for identifying hydrothermal ecosystems in need of protection

• Criteria for assessing vulnerability of marine hydrothermal ecosystems in deep ocean areas are identified.
• Nine criteria are applied to assessing hydrothermal vent characteristics on the North Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This was based on studying uniqueness, functional status, fragility, life history, structural characteristics, and other criteria.

What area would need protection?

• The need for a 3D zone to protect active hydrothermal vents is identified and emphasized based on scientific knowledge. Current protection involves coordinates for active vents (SINP) and zoning schemes.

Resilience of deep-sea ecosystems

• The resilience of deep-sea ecosystems, and specific considerations to mitigate impacts of deep-sea mining are given.
• Methods and actions for restoration of affected areas are highlighted.

Recent DOSI minerals WG activities

• DOSI (Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative) activities, which consist of collaborations, expert contributions, workshops, reports, and commentary, are explained in relation to the policy implications of deep-sea mining practices.

One Ocean – Whose Ocean?

• There are multiple paths to the sustainability of the ocean.
• The ocean is a global resource that needs to be managed carefully.

Test your knowledge on the unique characteristics of abyssal plains and deep-sea ecosystems. This quiz covers temperature conditions, food sources, faunal biomass, and mineral resources in the ocean depths. It's perfect for students and marine biology enthusiasts alike.