Declarative and Explicit Memory

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Questions and Answers

What is declarative or explicit memory?

A type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known, and can be consciously accessed.

Define episodic memory.

A type of long-term memory involving the conscious recollection of previous personal experiences along with their context (time, place, emotions, etc.).

What is meant by 'mental time travel' in the context of memory?

The ability to mentally revisit past events through episodic memory.

Describe semantic memory.

<p>A network of associated facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world.</p>
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What is memory consolidation?

<p>The process by which relatively labile, newly acquired information is stabilized and transferred into more permanent long-term memory storage.</p>
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Explain the process of reconsolidation.

<p>When a previously consolidated memory is reactivated (retrieved), it becomes temporarily unstable or 'labile' again before being restabilized.</p>
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What characterizes a labile memory?

<p>A memory that is readily open to change, modification, or disruption.</p>
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Describe the standard consolidation theory of memory.

<p>This theory proposes that memories are initially dependent on the hippocampus for storage and retrieval, but over time, they are transferred to and become dependent on more stable cortical storage systems.</p>
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What does the multiple memory trace theory propose about the hippocampus and episodic memories?

<p>It proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of specific, detailed episodic memories, regardless of how old they are.</p>
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Define free recall.

<p>Retrieving a memory without the use of specific cues or prompts.</p>
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What is cued recall?

<p>Retrieving a memory with the help of some prompts or cues, requiring the individual to supply some related information.</p>
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Explain recognition in the context of memory retrieval.

<p>Identifying information as familiar or previously encountered when presented with sufficient cues, essentially recognizing the correct information.</p>
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What is directed forgetting?

<p>The process of intentionally trying not to remember specific information, which is often difficult for episodic memories but can be applied to semantic information.</p>
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Define passive forgetting.

<p>The natural fading or decay of information over time when it is not rehearsed or retrieved.</p>
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What is the depth-of-processing effect?

<p>The finding that processing information more deeply and meaningfully during encoding leads to better recall later.</p>
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Explain the transfer-appropriate processing effect.

<p>Memory performance is better when the cognitive processes used during encoding (learning) match the cognitive processes required during retrieval (testing).</p>
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What is Ribot's law (or Ribot's gradient) in the context of retrograde amnesia?

<p>The observation that in retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories), recent memories are more susceptible to disruption than older, more remote memories.</p>
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Define anterograde amnesia.

<p>The inability to form and encode new long-term explicit memories after the onset of amnesia.</p>
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What is agnosia?

<p>The inability to recognize familiar objects, people, sounds, smells, or shapes despite intact sensory function.</p>
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Explain proactive interference.

<p>When previously learned information hinders the ability to acquire or recall new information.</p>
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What is memory misattribution?

<p>Incorrectly remembering the source or context of a memory, believing one has firsthand experience of an event when they do not.</p>
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Define source amnesia.

<p>The inability to recall the source or origin of learned information, despite recalling the information itself.</p>
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What is cryptomnesia?

<p>Unconsciously plagiarizing, where an individual mistakenly believes an idea is their own original thought when they actually encountered it previously but forgot the source.</p>
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Describe false memories.

<p>Memories of events or details that did not actually occur, but the individual genuinely believes they did.</p>
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What is eyewitness memory?

<p>A person's narrative memory recounting an event they personally witnessed.</p>
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What role does the basal forebrain play in episodic memory?

<p>It plays a key role by modulating attention, sensory processing, and the integration of information necessary for forming and retrieving episodic memories.</p>
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What structures comprise the diencephalon, and what is its role in memory?

<p>The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. It plays a role in processing and relaying information crucial for episodic memory.</p>
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What functions are primarily regulated by the frontal cortex in the context of memory and behavior?

<p>The frontal cortex regulates higher-level cognitive functions, including aspects of memory (like source monitoring and working memory), personality, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior.</p>
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What is the primary role of the hippocampus regarding new explicit memories?

<p>The hippocampus is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories, transforming short-term memories into long-term ones.</p>
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According to the provided information, where are semantic memories primarily stored once consolidated, and is the hippocampus still required for their retrieval?

<p>Cortex, hippocampus no longer required (C)</p>
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True or False: Once consolidated, episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored entirely in the cortex and no longer require the hippocampus for retrieval, including mental time travel.

<p>False (B)</p>
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What are episodic memories particularly vulnerable to when they are replayed or retrieved via the hippocampus?

<p>Distortion.</p>
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What structures are included in the medial temporal lobe (MTL), and what is its overall function in memory?

<p>The MTL includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex (like entorhinal, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices). It plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories.</p>
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What are the two main types of long-term memory?

<p>Explicit (declarative) memory and Implicit (non-declarative) memory.</p>
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What does short-term memory consist of, and what is its primary characteristic?

<p>Short-term memory consists of sensory memory and working memory. Its primary characteristic is the capacity to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period.</p>
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The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes memory flow as: input --> _____ memory --> ST working memory --> _____ _____ memory.

<p>sensory, long term</p>
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Describe sensory memory and its approximate duration.

<p>Sensory memory is a very brief, temporary storage of sensory input. It has a large capacity but decays extremely quickly, typically within 1-2 seconds.</p>
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What is working memory, and what is its estimated capacity according to George Miller?

<p>Working memory is the system responsible for holding and manipulating information currently in the focus of attention. George Miller estimated its capacity to be limited, around '7 plus or minus 2' items or chunks.</p>
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According to Baddeley's model, what are the key components that allow information to be actively manipulated and processed simultaneously?

<p>The Central Executive, which manages attention and coordinates activities, manipulates information held in two main subsidiary 'slave' systems: the Phonological Loop (for verbal information) and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (for visual and spatial information).</p>
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In Baddeley's model of working memory, what are the primary functions of the Central Executive?

<p>The Central Executive is responsible for manipulating information, monitoring and retrieving information, and controlling attention.</p>
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Describe the phonological loop component of Baddeley's model and identify factors that affect its capacity.

<p>The phonological loop is a verbal working memory buffer responsible for storing and rehearsing speech-based information. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster rehearsal allows more items) and word length (shorter words are easier to rehearse and maintain).</p>
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What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model?

<p>The visuo-spatial sketchpad is a visual working memory buffer responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating visual and spatial information, including object details and locations.</p>
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Explain the concept of 'chunking' in working memory.

<p>Chunking is a strategy to increase the effective capacity of working memory by grouping individual items into larger, meaningful units or 'chunks'.</p>
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What is 'recoding' in the context of memory?

<p>Recoding involves converting new, unfamiliar material into a more familiar format to make it easier to remember.</p>
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Describe the Delayed Non-Match to Sample (DNMS) task.

<p>The DNMS task is a test of visual recognition memory. A subject is first shown a sample object. After a delay, they are presented with the sample object and a novel object, and must choose the novel (non-matching) object to receive a reward.</p>
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Explain the delayed spatial response task.

<p>In a delayed spatial response task, a subject is shown a stimulus at a specific location. After a delay period where the stimulus is absent, the subject must respond based on the remembered location (e.g., point to it, report a pattern).</p>
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What evidence supports the existence of at least two distinct working memory buffers (e.g., phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

<p>Evidence comes from studies showing interference and non-interference effects. Performance on a verbal task is disrupted more by a concurrent verbal task than by a concurrent visual task, and vice versa. This suggests separate processing resources for different modalities.</p>
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How does interference affect working memory capacity?

<p>Interference occurs when additional or competing information disrupts the ability to maintain or manipulate items currently held in working memory, effectively reducing its holding capacity.</p>
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True or False: According to the concept of non-interference between modalities, the 7 +/- 2 item capacity limit applies independently to the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

<p>True (A)</p>
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What cognitive function does the N-back test primarily assess?

<p>The N-back test primarily assesses the ability to update and monitor information held within working memory buffers, requiring rehearsal and manipulation of incoming stimuli.</p>
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What cognitive functions are assessed by the Tower of Hanoi puzzle?

<p>The Tower of Hanoi task primarily assesses higher-level executive functions, particularly planning, problem-solving, goal setting, and sequencing of actions.</p>
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Define task switching.

<p>Task switching involves redirecting attention between different tasks, requiring the ability to disengage from one set of rules or goals and engage with a new set, often involving inhibition of the previous task set.</p>
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What ability does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) primarily assess?

<p>The WCST primarily assesses cognitive flexibility and task switching, specifically the ability to shift cognitive sets, adapt to changing rules, and inhibit prepotent responses based on previous rules.</p>
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Explain stimulus attention and response inhibition.

<p>This refers to the executive control function of selectively attending to relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions, and inhibiting inappropriate or automatic responses in favor of goal-directed actions.</p>
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What is involved in 'unconditioned conditioned response control'?

<p>This refers to the ability to inhibit unwanted automatic or reflexive responses, including unconditioned responses (like flinching or blinking) or strongly conditioned responses, often by actively engaging alternative motor responses or cognitive control.</p>
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What is the role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) in working memory and executive function?

<p>The DLPFC is considered the location of the central executive function. It is primarily involved in manipulating information held in working memory and exerting cognitive control over stimulus-driven behavior.</p>
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What are the proposed differential functions of the left and right Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC) in working memory according to some models?

<p>Within Baddeley's framework, the left VLPFC is often associated with the phonological loop (verbal working memory maintenance/rehearsal), while the right VLPFC is associated with the visuo-spatial sketchpad (visuo-spatial working memory maintenance/rehearsal).</p>
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How does the neurotransmitter dopamine influence working memory?

<p>Dopamine plays a crucial modulatory role in working memory functions, particularly within the prefrontal cortex. Optimal dopamine levels are thought to enhance the stability and persistence of representations held in working memory, affecting signal-to-noise ratio and cognitive control.</p>
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Describe the anterior-posterior gradient of prefrontal cortex activation during cognitive tasks.

<p>This refers to the observation that as the complexity or abstractness of a cognitive task increases, the locus of activation within the prefrontal cortex tends to shift from more posterior regions towards more anterior regions.</p>
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What is the abstract-concrete gradient in memory?

<p>This refers to the general finding that concrete concepts, which have clearer sensory referents (e.g., 'dog', 'table'), are often remembered better or processed differently than abstract concepts (e.g., 'justice', 'truth').</p>
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What is dysexecutive syndrome?

<p>Dysexecutive syndrome is a cluster of impairments in executive functions, the cognitive processes responsible for planning, organizing, initiating, monitoring, and controlling mental activities and behavior.</p>
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What evidence from Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delayed response task studies suggests working memory involves the prefrontal cortex?

<p>Goldman-Rakic found neurons in the prefrontal cortex of monkeys that remained active during the delay period of the task (when the cue was absent but needed to be remembered). This sustained activity, resistant to distractors, was interpreted as reflecting the neural correlate of holding information in working memory.</p>
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Which brain area is primarily associated with 'frontal circuits' in memory?

<p>The prefrontal cortex.</p>
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Which brain areas are primarily associated with 'posterior circuits' in memory?

<p>The hippocampus and temporal lobe structures.</p>
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Define non-declarative or implicit memory.

<p>Non-declarative (implicit) memory refers to memory retention that occurs without conscious recollection of the learning experience. It influences behavior unconsciously.</p>
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What is priming in the context of memory?

<p>Priming is a form of unconscious (implicit) memory processing where prior exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus, often facilitating processing or recognition without conscious awareness of the initial exposure.</p>
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Describe the concept of 'familiarity' as a component of memory.

<p>Familiarity is a sense of recognizing something or someone without necessarily retrieving specific contextual details about the prior encounter. It's often described as a feeling of 'knowing' that lacks explicit recollection.</p>
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What is skill memory, and what are its two main categories mentioned?

<p>Skill memory (or procedural memory) is memory for learned motor behaviors and cognitive procedures. The two main categories mentioned are cognitive skills (problem-solving strategies) and perceptual-motor skills (motor actions guided by senses).</p>
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Define cognitive skills.

<p>Cognitive skills refer to learned strategies and procedures for solving problems or performing mental tasks efficiently.</p>
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Define perceptual-motor skills.

<p>Perceptual-motor skills are learned motor patterns and actions that are guided by sensory inputs.</p>
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What characterizes 'closed skills'?

<p>Closed skills involve performing a task in a stable, predictable environment where there is an established, perfected way to execute the skill, and deviation from this optimal pattern is generally not desired.</p>
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Explain the 'power law of learning' in skill acquisition.

<p>The power law of learning describes the relationship between practice and skill improvement. It states that initial gains in performance are typically large and rapid, but with continued practice, the rate of improvement slows down, eventually approaching an asymptote.</p>
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Describe massed practice and its general effectiveness for long-term retention.

<p>Massed practice involves concentrating learning or practice sessions into a single, long block of time (e.g., cramming). While it can lead to quick short-term gains, it is generally less effective for long-term retention compared to spaced practice.</p>
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What is constant practice, and for which type of skill is it generally most suitable?

<p>Constant practice involves repeatedly performing a single task or skill in the exact same way until it is perfected. It is generally most suitable for acquiring closed skills, where a consistent, optimal movement pattern is desired.</p>
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What is variable practice, and for which type of skill is it generally most suitable?

<p>Variable practice involves practicing a skill under a variety of different conditions or performing several related tasks with variations. It encourages adapting movements and trying new approaches, making it particularly suitable for acquiring open skills.</p>
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What is skill decay?

<p>Skill decay refers to the loss or decline in performance of a learned skill that occurs over time when the skill is not practiced.</p>
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Explain 'transfer specificity' in skill learning.

<p>Transfer specificity refers to the phenomenon where a learned skill often does not transfer well, or sometimes even interferes with learning, in new situations or when applied to similar but distinct skills.</p>
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Briefly describe the three stages of Fitts's model of skill learning.

<ol> <li><strong>Cognitive Stage:</strong> Initial learning phase, relies heavily on declarative instruction and conscious effort to understand the task. Performance is slow and error-prone.</li> <li><strong>Associative Stage:</strong> Intermediate phase with practice; actions become more fluid, less reliance on verbal rules, but still requires concentration and is vulnerable to distraction.</li> <li><strong>Autonomous Stage:</strong> Final stage where the skill becomes highly automatic, requiring little conscious attention. Performance is smooth, efficient, and resistant to distraction.</li> </ol>
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Why are the basal ganglia considered important for skill learning?

<p>The basal ganglia are crucial because skill learning, particularly sensorimotor learning, shares similarities with operant conditioning (learning stimulus-response associations leading to outcomes, S-&gt;R-&gt;O). The basal ganglia play a key role in initiating and controlling movements and forming stimulus-response habits.</p>
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What is the role of the cortex in skill learning, especially with extensive practice?

<p>The cortex is important for detecting sensory stimuli and controlling movements involved in skills. With extensive practice leading to expertise, changes occur in the neocortex, observable via fMRI (different activation patterns in experts vs. novices) and sometimes MRI (structural changes related to practice).</p>
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What is the primary role of the cerebellum in performing learned skills?

<p>The cerebellum is essential for the proper sequencing and timing of movements within a skill. It also helps smooth out motor performance, ensuring actions are coordinated and not jerky.</p>
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What effect can transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have on sensorimotor skills?

<p>Transcranial magnetic stimulation applied to relevant motor or premotor areas of the cortex can temporarily disrupt neural activity, thereby blocking or interfering with the performance of a learned sensorimotor skill.</p>
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Describe Parkinson's disease and its typical impact on skill learning.

<p>Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder resulting from damage to the substantia nigra, leading to reduced dopamine production. This impairs motor control and significantly impacts perceptual-motor skill learning and the performance of well-learned (especially closed) skills.</p>
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Describe Huntington's disease, including its cause and effects on skills and learning.

<p>Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder caused by a repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, leading to the buildup of abnormal huntingtin protein, particularly in the basal ganglia. It causes progressive motor dysfunction (chorea), cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms, slower learning rates, and severe impairment of sensory and motor skills.</p>
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What is deep brain stimulation (DBS), and how is it used as a therapy, for example, in Parkinson's disease?

<p>Deep brain stimulation is a neurosurgical procedure where electrodes are implanted in specific brain regions (like the subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus for Parkinson's). These electrodes deliver continuous electrical pulses to modulate abnormal brain activity, helping to alleviate motor symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, and slowness.</p>
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Describe REM sleep.

<p>REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity similar to waking, muscle atonia (paralysis), and vivid dreaming. Its duration typically increases as the night progresses.</p>
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What is NREM sleep, and what are its general stages?

<p>NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep encompasses stages 1 through 3/4 of the sleep cycle. Stage 1 is light sleep. Stage 2 makes up about 50% of total sleep time. Stages 3 and 4 are combined as Slow Wave Sleep (SWS), characterized by deep sleep and minimal muscle activity.</p>
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What is slow wave sleep (SWS), and when does it primarily occur during the night?

<p>Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) corresponds to stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, characterized by high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves on EEG. It is the deepest stage of sleep with no muscle activity. Longer periods of SWS typically occur earlier in the night.</p>
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What is a hypnogram?

<p>A hypnogram is a graph that visually represents the stages of sleep (e.g., Wake, REM, NREM stages 1-4 or 1-3) as they cycle throughout a period of sleep, typically plotted against time.</p>
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What is the described function of the glymphatic system, especially during sleep?

<p>The glymphatic system functions like the brain's waste clearance system. During sleep, particularly deep SWS, it becomes more active, flushing out metabolic byproducts and potentially toxic proteins (like beta-amyloid) that accumulate in the brain during wakefulness.</p>
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What is meant by 'sleep consolidation' in the context of memory?

<p>Sleep consolidation refers to the process by which memories are strengthened, stabilized, and integrated into long-term storage during sleep.</p>
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Explain the Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis (SHY) regarding the function of sleep.

<p>The Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis proposes that wakefulness leads to a net increase in synaptic strength throughout the brain. Sleep, particularly SWS, serves to downscale or weaken many of these synapses, especially weaker ones, returning synaptic strength to a baseline level. This process conserves energy, prevents saturation, and enhances learning capacity for the next day.</p>
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What is mental time travel in the context of memory?

<p>The ability to visit the past through memory.</p>
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What occurs during memory reconsolidation?

<p>A previously consolidated memory is reactivated and becomes temporarily labile (changeable) before being restabilized.</p>
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What does it mean for a memory to be labile?

<p>The memory is readily open to change.</p>
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Explain the standard consolidation theory.

<p>This theory suggests that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system.</p>
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Describe the multiple memory trace theory.

<p>This theory proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of episodic memories, regardless of how long ago they occurred.</p>
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Define recognition in memory retrieval.

<p>Identifying previously learned information when presented with sufficient cues.</p>
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What is passive forgetting?

<p>The fading of information over time if it is not accessed or rehearsed.</p>
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What is Ribot's law or gradient?

<p>In retrograde amnesia, recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older, more remote memories.</p>
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What is proactive interference?

<p>When previously learned information interferes with attempts to acquire new information.</p>
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Define misattribution in the context of memory.

<p>Thinking that we have firsthand episodic experience of an event when we do not.</p>
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What is source amnesia?

<p>The failure to recall the source of information, representing a disconnect between semantic (recalled) and episodic (not recalled) memory.</p>
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Define cryptomnesia.

<p>Thinking an idea is original or yours, but forgetting that you encountered it previously from another source.</p>
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What are false memories?

<p>Memories of events that an individual is convinced happened, but they did not actually occur.</p>
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What role does the basal forebrain play in memory?

<p>It plays a key role in episodic memory by modulating attention, sensory processing, and the integration of information.</p>
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Which brain structures make up the diencephalon, and what is its role in memory?

<p>The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus; it plays a role in episodic memory, and damage can cause memory loss.</p>
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What is the function of the frontal cortex related to behavior and memory?

<p>The frontal cortex regulates personality and goal-directed behavior, and it is involved in working memory and retrieving long-term memories.</p>
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What is the primary role of the hippocampus in memory?

<p>The hippocampus is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories.</p>
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Where are semantic memories primarily stored, and is the hippocampus required for their retrieval?

<p>Semantic memories (facts) are predominantly stored in the cortex, and the hippocampus is generally no longer required for retrieval once consolidated.</p>
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Where are episodic memories stored, and what is the role of the hippocampus in their retrieval?

<p>Episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored in the cortex, but the hippocampus is required to replay the spatiotemporal context for mental time travel.</p>
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What are episodic memories vulnerable to when replayed in the hippocampus?

<p>They are vulnerable to distortion.</p>
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What structures are part of the medial temporal lobe, and what is its function in memory?

<p>The medial temporal lobe includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; it plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories.</p>
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What components make up short-term memory according to some models, and what is its basic function?

<p>Short-term memory consists of sensory memory and working memory; its function is to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period.</p>
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Describe the flow of information in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory.

<p>Input flows into sensory memory, then to short-term (working) memory (capacity often cited as 7 ± 2 items), and potentially into long-term memory.</p>
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What is sensory memory?

<p>A temporary memory buffer for sensory input with a very short capacity (around 1-2 seconds).</p>
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Define working memory and state its approximate capacity.

<p>Working memory is the system responsible for the temporary holding and manipulation of information; it represents the current focus of attention and has a limited capacity (often cited as 7 ± 2 items).</p>
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Describe the main components and function of Baddeley's model of working memory.

<p>In Baddeley's model, information is actively manipulated. A central executive controls and coordinates slave systems: the phonological loop (for verbal information) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (for visual/spatial information).</p>
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What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

<p>The central executive is responsible for manipulation, monitoring, retrieving information, and allocating attention.</p>
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What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's model, and what factors affect its capacity?

<p>It's the verbal working memory buffer responsible for verbal rehearsal. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster = better) and word length (shorter words = better recall).</p>
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What is chunking in the context of working memory?

<p>Grouping similar or meaningful items together into a single unit (chunk) to increase the effective capacity of working memory.</p>
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Define recoding and provide an example.

<p>Recoding is converting new material into a more familiar format, often by relating it to existing knowledge. Example: Remembering the number sequence 19841776314159 by recoding it as meaningful dates and numbers (1984) (1776) (π ≈ 3.14159).</p>
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What does the delayed non-match to sample task test?

<p>It tests visual memory, requiring a subject to indicate which of two novel objects is <em>not</em> the same as one recently seen.</p>
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Describe the delayed spatial response task.

<p>A location-specific visual stimulus is presented, followed by a time delay without the stimulus. The subject must then replay or report the pattern or location.</p>
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What evidence supports the existence of at least two separate working memory buffers (like the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

<p>The pattern of interference and non-interference between modalities. Performing two verbal tasks simultaneously causes significant interference, as does performing two visuo-spatial tasks. However, performing one verbal and one visuo-spatial task concurrently shows much less interference.</p>
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What is memory interference?

<p>The phenomenon where the recall of certain items hinders the recall of others, often because additional items exceed the limited holding capacity of memory systems.</p>
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Explain non-interference between modalities in working memory.

<p>The capacity limit (e.g., 7 ± 2 items) for the phonological loop is relatively separate from the capacity limit of the visuospatial sketchpad, meaning performance on a verbal task is minimally disrupted by a concurrent visuospatial task, and vice versa.</p>
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What does the N-back test measure?

<p>It tests the ability to update working memory buffers and direct information rehearsal. Participants listen to a sequence (e.g., numbers) and must report the item heard N positions back from the current one.</p>
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What cognitive abilities does the Tower of Hanoi puzzle test, and who might struggle with it?

<p>It tests planning, goal setting, and problem-solving abilities related to the central executive. People with difficulties in central executive function (e.g., prefrontal cortex damage) are often very slow at this task.</p>
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What is task switching?

<p>The ability to redirect attention between different tasks, involving following a new rule or set of instructions while ignoring a previous one.</p>
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What does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test assess?

<p>It tests task switching and cognitive flexibility. Participants sort cards according to one rule (e.g., color), and then must switch to a new rule (e.g., shape) based on feedback, ignoring the old rule.</p>
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What is stimulus attention/response inhibition?

<p>Controlling which stimuli receive attention and inhibiting prepotent or habitual motor responses, especially when needing to stay in an action mode rather than reverting to habits.</p>
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What is unconditioned/conditioned response control?

<p>The ability to inhibit unwanted responses, including automatic or unconditioned ones (like flinching or blinking in a staring contest), often by activating competing motor responses.</p>
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What is the function of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) in working memory?

<p>It is considered the location of central executive functions, increasing cognitive control over stimulus control and manipulating information held in working memory.</p>
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What are the proposed functions of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC) in working memory?

<p>The VLPFC is involved in maintaining and rehearsing items in working memory. The left VLPFC is associated with the phonological loop (verbal rehearsal), and the right VLPFC with the visuo-spatial sketchpad.</p>
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How does dopamine influence working memory?

<p>Dopamine influences working memory function and can affect the strength and persistence of memories held actively in mind.</p>
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Describe the anterior-posterior gradient of prefrontal activation during complex tasks.

<p>Prefrontal activation tends to spread from posterior (back) to anterior (front) regions as the complexity or abstractness of the task increases.</p>
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Describe the abstract-concrete gradient related to memory.

<p>Concrete concepts, which have clear sensory referents (e.g., 'dog'), are often remembered better or processed differently than abstract concepts (e.g., 'justice').</p>
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What evidence from Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delay tests suggests working memory is located in the prefrontal cortex?

<p>Neurons in the prefrontal cortex remained active during the delay period (when the cue was gone) in tasks requiring monkeys to remember a cue location. This sustained activity, thought to reflect working memory maintenance, was not disrupted by visual distractors during the delay.</p>
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Which brain region is primarily associated with frontal circuits in memory?

<p>The prefrontal cortex.</p>
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Which brain regions are primarily associated with posterior circuits in memory?

<p>The hippocampus and temporal lobe.</p>
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What is non-declarative/implicit memory?

<p>Memory retention without conscious recollection of learning; includes skills and procedures, often thought to involve structures like the cerebellum and basal ganglia.</p>
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Define priming memory.

<p>Unconscious memory processing where prior exposure to stimulus items aids subsequent learning or processing of related items.</p>
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What is familiarity in the context of memory?

<p>A feeling of recognition without necessarily having explicit, declarative knowledge or recall of the context of prior exposure.</p>
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What is skill memory, and what are its two main types?

<p>Skill memory involves learned motor behaviors and procedures. Its main types are cognitive skills and perceptual-motor skills.</p>
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What are closed skills?

<p>Skills performed in a predictable environment where there is a perfected, optimal way of performing the task, and deviation is not desired.</p>
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Describe the power law of learning in skill acquisition.

<p>Early gains in learning a skill are typically large and rapid, but with continued practice, the rate of improvement slows down, eventually approaching an asymptote (limit) of skill acquisition.</p>
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What is massed practice, and what is its effect on learning?

<p>Practicing a skill all at once in a concentrated session. It leads to quick initial gains but is generally not effective for long-term retention.</p>
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What is constant practice, and for which type of skill is it most suitable?

<p>Practicing a single task or skill repeatedly under the same conditions until it is perfected. It is most suitable for closed skills.</p>
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What is variable practice, and for which type of skill is it most suitable?

<p>Practicing several variations of a task or different related tasks, trying out new approaches. It is most suitable for open skills.</p>
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What is transfer specificity in skill learning?

<p>The phenomenon where a learned skill does not easily transfer to new situations, and may even interfere with learning similar but distinct skills.</p>
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Describe the three stages of Fitts's model of skill learning.

<ol> <li>Cognitive stage: Initial learning where declarative instruction is beneficial, effortful performance. 2. Associative stage: Intermediate stage with practice, performance becomes smoother but still requires conscious attention and is vulnerable to distraction. 3. Autonomous stage: Skill becomes highly proficient, automatic, requires little attention, and is resistant to distraction.</li> </ol>
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Why is the basal ganglia important for skill memory?

<p>The basal ganglia are crucial for skill learning (especially sensorimotor learning), similar to their role in operant conditioning (linking stimuli/contexts to responses and outcomes, S-R-O). Damage interferes with skill acquisition.</p>
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What is the role of the cortex in skill memory?

<p>The cortex is important for detecting stimuli and controlling movements involved in skills. With extensive practice, changes associated with skill development become evident in the cortex (e.g., differences in fMRI activity between experts and novices, structural MRI changes).</p>
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What is the role of the cerebellum in skill memory?

<p>The cerebellum is essential for the timing and sequencing of behaviors, and for smoothing out movements, ensuring coordinated and fluid performance.</p>
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What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) used for in studying skill memory?

<p>TMS can be used to temporarily disrupt activity in specific brain regions, allowing researchers to block the performance of a sensorimotor skill temporarily and study the role of that region.</p>
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How does Parkinson's disease affect skill memory?

<p>Parkinson's involves damage to the substantia nigra, reducing dopamine production. This impairs perceptual-motor learning and particularly inhibits the performance and learning of closed skills, which rely heavily on the basal ganglia.</p>
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What causes Huntington's disease, and how does it affect skill memory?

<p>Huntington's is a genetic disorder caused by a gene mutation leading to overproduction of the huntingtin protein, particularly damaging the basal ganglia. It leads to slower learning rates and eventually complete impairment of sensory and motor skills.</p>
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What is deep brain stimulation (DBS) used for in Parkinson's disease?

<p>DBS is a therapy involving surgically implanted electrodes in specific brain regions (often parts of the basal ganglia or thalamus) that send electrical pulses to disrupt abnormal brain signals, helping control motor symptoms.</p>
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What characterizes REM sleep?

<p>REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage where vivid dreams typically occur. Brain activity resembles wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed. REM periods generally increase in duration as the night progresses.</p>
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What is NREM sleep?

<p>NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep encompasses stages 1-4 (or 1-3 in newer classifications). Stage 1 is light sleep, Stage 2 makes up about 50% of sleep time, and Stages 3/4 are deep Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) with minimal muscle activity.</p>
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What is slow wave sleep (SWS)?

<p>SWS corresponds to stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, characterized by high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves on an EEG. Longer durations typically occur earlier in the night. There is minimal muscle activity, and it's considered deep, restorative sleep.</p>
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What is the role of the glymphatic system during sleep?

<p>The glymphatic system becomes more active during sleep, clearing out toxic metabolic byproducts (like beta-amyloid) that accumulate in the brain during wakefulness. It's sometimes described as 'flushing the brain's toilet'.</p>
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What is sleep consolidation of memory?

<p>The process by which sleeping after learning helps stabilize and strengthen memory traces, improving later recall.</p>
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Explain the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis of sleep.

<p>This hypothesis proposes that wakefulness leads to a net increase in synaptic strength throughout the brain. Sleep, particularly SWS, serves to downscale or prune weaker synapses, reducing energy demands and optimizing neural networks by preserving relatively stronger synapses.</p>
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What is episodic memory?

<p>A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of previous experiences together with their context in terms of time, place, associated emotions, etc.</p>
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What is meant by mental time travel?

<p>The ability to visit the past through memory.</p>
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What is consolidation in memory?

<p>The period of time where information is moved into longer-term memory, typically taking about one month.</p>
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What is reconsolidation?

<p>The process where a previously consolidated memory is reactivated and becomes temporarily labile (changeable) before being restabilized.</p>
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Describe the standard consolidation theory.

<p>This theory posits that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system.</p>
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Explain the multiple memory trace theory.

<p>This theory proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of episodic memories, regardless of how long ago they occurred.</p>
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What is recognition memory?

<p>Identifying previously learned information when presented with cues; you just have to recognize the info.</p>
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Explain the depth-of-processing effect.

<p>Deeper, more meaningful processing of information leads to better recall.</p>
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What is the transfer-appropriate processing effect?

<p>Memory performance is enhanced when the cognitive processes used during learning (encoding) match the cognitive processes required during retrieval.</p>
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Explain Ribot's law/gradient.

<p>In retrograde amnesia, recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older, more remote memories.</p>
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What is anterograde amnesia?

<p>The inability to encode new memories after the event that caused the amnesia.</p>
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Define proactive interference.

<p>Occurs when previously learned information interferes with attempts to acquire new information.</p>
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What is misattribution in memory?

<p>Thinking that we have firsthand episodic experience of an event when we actually do not; attributing a memory to the wrong source.</p>
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What role does the diencephalon play in memory?

<p>Composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus, it plays a role in episodic memory. Damage can cause memory loss.</p>
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What is the role of the frontal cortex in memory and behavior?

<p>It is the brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior, and it's involved in working memory and retrieval strategies.</p>
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What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory?

<p>It is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories.</p>
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Where are episodic memories primarily stored, and is the hippocampus required for their retrieval?

<p>Episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored in the cortex, but the hippocampus is required to replay the spatial and temporal context for mental time travel.</p>
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What is the medial temporal lobe, and what is its role in memory?

<p>The innermost portion of the temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; it plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories.</p>
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What is short-term memory?

<p>It consists of sensory memory and working memory; it's the capacity to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period.</p>
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What is working memory?

<p>The current focus of attention; has a limited capacity (often cited as 7±2 items) and duration.</p>
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Describe Baddeley's model of working memory.

<p>Information is actively manipulated, and multiple processes can occur simultaneously. The model includes a CENTRAL EXECUTIVE that manipulates a Phonological Loop (verbal) and a Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (visual/spatial).</p>
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What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's model?

<p>It is responsible for manipulation, monitoring, retrieving information, and controlling attention.</p>
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What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's model?

<p>A verbal working memory buffer used for verbal rehearsal. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster = better) and word length (shorter = better).</p>
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What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model?

<p>A visual working memory buffer that handles object and location details of a memory.</p>
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What is chunking in memory?

<p>Grouping similar items together into a single meaningful unit (chunk) to increase the amount of information held in working memory.</p>
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What evidence supports the existence of at least two working memory buffers (like the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

<p>The observation of interference within modalities (e.g., two verbal tasks interfere more than a verbal and a visual task) and non-interference between modalities.</p>
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What causes interference in working memory?

<p>Additional items exceeding the holding capacity interfere with maintaining existing items.</p>
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What does 'non-interference between modalities' mean in working memory?

<p>The capacity limit (e.g., 7 +/- 2 or fewer items) in the phonological loop is separate from the capacity limit in the visuospatial sketchpad.</p>
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What is the N-back test used for?

<p>It's a test that requires updating working memory buffers and directing information rehearsal. Participants listen to a sequence (e.g., numbers) and must report the item presented 'N' positions back from the current one.</p>
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What cognitive function does the Tower of Hanoi task assess?

<p>It tests planning, problem-solving, and goal setting, which are functions associated with the central executive.</p>
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What does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) assess?

<p>It tests task switching ability. Participants sort cards according to a rule that changes without warning, requiring them to adapt and inhibit the previous rule.</p>
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What is meant by unconditioned/conditioned response control?

<p>The ability to inhibit unwanted responses, including automatic, unconditioned ones (like flinching or automatic emotional reactions), often by activating alternative motor responses or cognitive strategies.</p>
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What is the role of the DLPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) in working memory?

<p>It is considered the location of central executive function, increasing cognitive control over stimulus response and manipulating information in working memory.</p>
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What are the proposed roles of the VLPFC (ventrolateral prefrontal cortex) in working memory?

<p>The left VLPFC is associated with the phonological loop, while the right VLPFC is associated with the visuo-spatial loop. It primarily maintains and rehearses items in working memory.</p>
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What is the anterior-posterior gradient in prefrontal cortex activation?

<p>Prefrontal activation tends to spread from posterior to anterior regions as the complexity and abstractness of the task increase.</p>
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Contrast place versus state models of working memory.

<p>Place models propose dedicated brain regions (places) for storing working memory information (e.g., PFC). State models suggest working memory involves temporarily activating representations stored elsewhere in the brain (e.g., sensory cortices) into a specific state.</p>
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What neurophysiological evidence suggests working memory involves the prefrontal cortex?

<p>Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delay-period activity studies showed neurons in the prefrontal cortex remain active during the delay phase of working memory tasks (when the cue is gone), even with visual distractors. This sustained activity is thought to reflect active maintenance of information.</p>
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Which brain circuits are primarily associated with working memory and executive control?

<p>Frontal circuits, particularly involving the prefrontal cortex.</p>
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Which brain circuits are primarily associated with long-term declarative memory consolidation?

<p>Posterior circuits, including the hippocampus and temporal lobes.</p>
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What are cognitive skills?

<p>Learned strategies and different ways of solving problems or performing mental tasks.</p>
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What are perceptual-motor skills?

<p>Learned motor skills guided by sensory inputs.</p>
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What defines closed skills?

<p>Skills performed in predictable environments where there is an optimal, perfected way of performing the task, and deviation is undesirable.</p>
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What does the power law of learning describe?

<p>Initial gains in learning a skill are large and rapid, but subsequent gains with additional practice become progressively smaller, eventually leading to an asymptote.</p>
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What is massed practice?

<p>Practicing a skill continuously without rest periods; leads to quick initial gains but is generally less effective for long-term retention.</p>
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What is constant practice?

<p>Repeating the exact same task or skill over and over; effective for perfecting closed skills.</p>
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What is variable practice?

<p>Practicing a skill under varied conditions or performing variations of the task; effective for developing adaptable open skills.</p>
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What is transfer specificity?

<p>The phenomenon where a learned skill does not transfer well to new, even similar, situations, and may sometimes interfere with learning related skills.</p>
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Describe Fitts's three-stage model of skill learning.

<ol> <li>Cognitive stage: Initial learning, relies on declarative instruction and conscious effort. 2. Associative stage: Intermediate stage, performance becomes smoother, less reliant on instruction, but still requires attention and is vulnerable to distraction. 3. Autonomous stage: Skill becomes automatic, requires little attention, can be performed while doing other things, less distractible.</li> </ol>
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What role does the basal ganglia play in skill learning?

<p>Crucial for learning and executing sensorimotor skills, particularly those involving sequences and habit formation, similar to operant conditioning (S-R-O learning). Damage impairs skill learning.</p>
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What role does the cortex play in skill learning?

<p>Important for detecting stimuli (sensory cortex) and controlling movements (motor cortex). With extensive practice, neocortical changes associated with skill development become evident (e.g., altered brain activity patterns, structural changes).</p>
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What is the cerebellum's role in skill learning?

<p>Essential for timing, coordination, and sequencing of behaviors, ensuring smooth and accurate performance of motor skills.</p>
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What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

<p>A non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic pulses to temporarily activate or inhibit specific brain regions. It can be used to temporarily block the performance of a sensorimotor skill to study brain function.</p>
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Describe Parkinson's disease and its effect on skill learning.

<p>A neurodegenerative disorder caused by damage to the substantia nigra, leading to reduced dopamine production. It impairs perceptual-motor learning and particularly inhibits the performance and learning of closed skills.</p>
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Describe Huntington's disease and its effect on skill learning.

<p>A genetic disorder caused by a repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, leading to overproduction of the huntingtin protein, particularly damaging the basal ganglia. It causes motor symptoms (chorea), cognitive decline, slower learning rates, and impairment of sensory and motor skills.</p>
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What is deep brain stimulation (DBS)?

<p>A surgical procedure used, for example, in Parkinson's therapy, involving implanting electrodes in specific brain regions (like the basal ganglia or thalamus). These electrodes send electrical pulses to disrupt abnormal brain signals, helping control motor symptoms.</p>
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What is the function of the glymphatic system during sleep?

<p>It acts like the brain's waste clearance system, becoming more active during sleep to flush out toxic metabolic byproducts that accumulate during wakefulness.</p>
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What is the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY)?

<p>The theory that sleep serves to downscale synaptic connections, particularly weaker ones, that were potentiated during wakefulness. This renormalization conserves energy and resources and prevents synaptic saturation.</p>
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Flashcards

Declarative/Explicit Memory

Long-term memory of facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific events, including context (time, place, emotions).

Mental Time Travel

The ability to remember past personal events as if traveling back to relive them.

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world, including facts and concepts.

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Consolidation

The process of transferring new memories into long-term storage, stabilizing them over time.

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Reconsolidation

When a consolidated memory is reactivated, it becomes temporarily unstable and subject to change before being restabilized.

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Labile Memory

A memory that is easily altered or forgotten.

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Standard Consolidation Theory

Memories temporarily stored in the hippocampus are transferred to the cortex for stable, long-term storage.

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Multiple Memory Trace Theory

The hippocampus remains involved in storing and retrieving episodic memories, regardless of age

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Free Recall

Recalling information without any cues or prompts.

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Cued Recall

Recalling information with the help of specific cues or prompts.

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Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when presented with it.

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Directed Forgetting

Actively trying to forget specific information.

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Passive Forgetting

Forgetting information over time due to lack of use or retrieval.

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Depth-of-Processing Effect

Deeper analysis of information leads to better recall.

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Transfer-Appropriate Processing Effect

Memory is enhanced when the cognitive processes used during encoding match those required during retrieval.

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Ribot's Law/Gradient

Recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older memories in retrograde amnesia.

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Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after an event.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall memories from before an event.

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Agnosia

Inability to recognize familiar objects, people, or sounds.

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Proactive Interference

Previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information.

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Retroactive Interference

Recently learned information interferes with the ability to recall old information.

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Misattribution

Remembering a fact correctly but attributing it to the wrong source.

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Source Amnesia

Forgetting the source of information, even if the information itself is remembered.

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Cryptomnesia

Unconsciously plagiarizing someone else's idea, believing it to be original.

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False Memories

Memories of events that did not actually happen.

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Eyewitness Memory

Memory of events witnessed, often used in legal contexts.

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Basal Forebrain

Brain region that modulates attention, sensory processing, and integrates information for episodic memory.

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Diencephalon

Brain region (thalamus and hypothalamus) that plays a role in episodic memory.

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Frontal Cortex

Brain region involved in personality, planning, and goal-directed behavior.

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Hippocampus

Brain region critical for consolidating new explicit memories.

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Semantic Memories

Long-term memory about facts, stored in the cortex

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Episodic Memories

Autobiographical memories that is stored in the cortex that requires hippocampus to replay

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Episodic memories replayed in the hippocampus are vulnerable what?

Distortion

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Medial Temporal Lobe

Brain region including the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; forming, consolidating, and retrieving explicit memories

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Two Types of Long Term Memory

Explicit and Implicit Memory

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Short Term Memory

Capacity to hold small amounts of information in readily available state for short period

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Atkinson- Shiffron Model of Memory

Input --> Sensory memory --> ST/Working memory --> Long Term Memory

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Sensory Memory

Temporary memory of sensory input; 1-2 second capacity

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Working Memory

Current focus of attention; limited capacity--7 plus or minus two items

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Baddely Model

Information is actively manipulated, multiple processes can occur simultaneously

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Central Executive

Used for manipulation, monitoring & retriving info, and attention

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Phonological Loop

Verbal working memory buffer for verbal rehearsal

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Visuo Spatial Sketchpad

Visual working memory buffer of object & location details of a memory

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Chunking

Adding similar items together into 1 item so you can fit more into working memory

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Recoding

Convert new material into older familiar material

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Delayed Non-Match to Sample Task

A test of visual memory in which a subject must indicate which of two novel objects is not the same as one that was recently seen

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Delayed Spatial Response Task

Location specific stimulus, delay without stimulus

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Evidence for Working Memory Buffers

interference and non-interference between modalities

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Study Notes

Declarative/Explicit Memory

  • Long-term memory containing conscious and known information; consciously accessible.

Episodic Memory

  • Long-term memory involving conscious recollection of previous experiences with associated context (time, place, emotions).

Mental Time Travel

  • The ability to revisit the past through memory.

Semantic Memory

  • A network of associated facts and concepts forming general world knowledge.

Consolidation

  • A period of time, usually about 1 month, where information is moved into longer-term memory.

Reconsolidation

  • A previously consolidated memory is reactivated, becomes temporarily labile (changeable), and is then restabilized.

Labile Memory

  • Memory readily open to change.

Standard Consolidation Theory

  • The theory that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until transfer to a more stable cortical storage system.

Multiple Memory Trace Theory

  • The theory that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of episodic memories, regardless of age.

Free Recall

  • Retrieving a memory without cues.

Cued Recall

  • Retrieving a memory with prompts, but requiring some supplied information.

Recognition

  • Identifying a memory from presented information, requiring only recognition.

Directed Forgetting

  • Actively trying not to remember semantic information; difficult for episodic memory.

Passive Forgetting

  • Valued information fades over time.

Depth-of-Processing Effect

  • Deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better recall.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Effect

  • Memory performance improves when cognitive processes during learning match those during retrieval.

Ribot's Law/Gradient

  • In retrograde amnesia, recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

  • Inability to encode new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

  • Inability to recall old memories.

Agnosia

  • Inability to recognize familiar objects.

Proactive Interference

  • Previously learned information interferes with the acquisition of new information.

Retroactive Interference

  • Recently learned information interferes with the recall of old information.

Misattribution

  • Believing one has firsthand episodic experience of an event when they do not.

Source Amnesia

  • Inability to recall the source of information; disconnection between semantic (recalled) and episodic (not recalled) memory.

Cryptomnesia

  • Unintentionally plagiarizing; thinking an idea is original but forgetting it came from someone else.

False Memories

  • Being convinced something happened when it did not.

Eyewitness Memory

  • A narrative memory of a personally witnessed event.

Basal Forebrain

  • Plays a key role in episodic memory by modulating attention, sensory processing, and the integration of information.

Diencephalon

  • The thalamus and hypothalamus, plays a role in episodic memory; damage can cause memory loss.

Frontal Cortex

  • Brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior.

Hippocampus

  • Required for consolidating new explicit memories.

Semantic Memories

  • Memories about facts; stored in the cortex, and the hippocampus is no longer required.

Episodic Memories

  • Autobiographical memories; stored in the cortex, but the hippocampus is required to replay location for mental time travel.

Episodic Memory Vulnerability

  • Episodic memories are vulnerable to distortion when replayed in the hippocampus.

Medial Temporal Lobe

  • Includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; crucial for forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories.

Two Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Explicit and implicit memory.

Short-Term Memory

  • Consists of sensory and working memory; ability to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period.

Atkinson-Shiffron Model of Memory

  • Input goes to sensory memory, then to short-term working memory (7 +/- 2 items), and finally to long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

  • Temporary memory of sensory input with a 1-2 second capacity.

Working Memory

  • Current focus of attention with limited capacity, around 7 plus or minus two items.

Baddely Model

  • Information is actively manipulated, with multiple processes occurring simultaneously. The central executive manipulates a phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

Central Executive

  • Part of the Baddely model used for manipulation, monitoring, and retrieving information, and attention.

Phonological Loop

  • Verbal working memory buffer used for verbal rehearsal in the Baddely model; affected by speech speed (faster = better) and word length (shorter = better).

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

  • Visual working memory buffer for object and location details of a memory.

Chunking

  • Grouping similar items into one item to fit more into working memory.

Recoding

  • Converting new material into familiar material.

Delayed Non-Match to Sample Task

  • A test of visual memory where the subject indicates which of two novel objects is different from a recently seen one.

Delayed Spatial Response Task

  • Remembering a location-specific visual stimulus after a time delay without the stimulus.

Evidence for Working Memory Buffers

  • Interference and non-interference between modalities.

Interference

  • Additional items interfere with holding capacity

Non-interference Between Modalities

  • The 7 +/- 2 capacity in the phonological loop is separate from the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

N-Back Test

  • A test that updates working memory buffers to direct information rehearsal; reporting a number heard N positions back from the most recent number.

Tower of Hanoi

  • A test related to planning and goal setting; moving discs to the right peg without overlapping a larger one over a smaller one. People with central executive difficulty are slow at this.

Task Switching

  • Redirecting attention between tasks, following a new rule and ignoring an old one.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

  • Tests task switching; playing cards with one rule and then switching to a new rule to determine if the central executive can keep up with the rule change.

Stimulus Attention/Response Inhibition

  • Controlling what stimuli gets attention and using operant tests requiring staying in action mode rather than returning to habits.

Unconditioned Conditioned Response Control

  • Inhibiting unwanted responses, including unconditioned ones, by activating motor responses.

DLPFC (Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex)

  • Location of central executive function. Increases cognitive control over stimulus control and manipulates working memory.

VLPFC (Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex)

  • Left side is for the phonological loop, and the right is for the visuo-spatial loop; maintains/rehearses items in working memory.

Dopamine

  • Influences working memory and can affect the strength and persistence of memories.

Anterior-Posterior Gradient

  • Prefrontal activation spreads from posterior to anterior as task complexity increases.

Abstract-Concrete Gradient

  • Concrete concepts, with clear sensory referents, are often remembered better than abstract concepts.

Dysexecutive Syndrome

  • Impairments in the ability to control and direct mental activities.

Evidence for Working Memory Location

  • Neurons active when cue was gone in Patricia-Goldman Racik's delay test reflect working memory because visual distractors did not affect them.

Frontal Circuits in Memory

  • Include the prefrontal cortex.

Posterior Circuits in Memory

  • Include the hippocampus and temporal lobe.

Non-Declarative/Implicit Memory

  • Retention without conscious recollection; skills and procedures are stored in the cerebellum.

Priming Memory

  • Unconscious memory processing where prior exposure to stimuli aids subsequent learning.

Familiarity

  • A feeling of recognition without explicit knowledge.

Skill Memory

  • Learned motor behaviors involving cognitive skills and perceptual motor skills.

Cognitive Skills

  • Different ways of solving problems.

Perceptual-Motor Skills

  • Motor skills guided by sensory input.

Closed Skills

  • A perfected way of performing a task where deviation is not desired.

Open Skills

  • Many ways to successfully complete a task, with motor output depending on sensory input.

Power Law of Learning

  • Early gains in a skill are large; additional practice eventually leads to an asymptote of skill acquisition.

Massed Practice

  • Practicing all at once; quick gains but not good for long-term retention.

Spaced Practice

  • Practicing spaced out over time; slower gains but better for long-term acquisition.

Constant Practice

  • Repeating one task/skill until it is perfected; good for closed skills.

Variable Practice

  • Practicing several tasks with variety, trying out new approaches; good for open skills.

Skill Decay

  • Without practice, skills degrade quickly.

Transfer Specificity

  • When learned skills do not transfer to new situations or even interfere with acquiring similar skills.

Fitts's Three-Stage Model of Skill Learning

  • Cognitive stage (benefiting from declarative instruction), associative stage (vulnerable to distraction), and autonomous stage (fully acquired skill, not distractable).

Basal Ganglia

  • Needed for skill learning because it is similar to operant conditioning (S>R>O); damage interferes with skill learning.

Cortex

  • Important for detecting stimuli and controlling movement. Neocortical changes with skill development are evident in fMRI and MRI.

Cerebellum

  • Essential for sequencing and smoothing out behaviors.

Apraxia

  • Inability to perform particular purposive actions due to brain damage.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

  • Temporarily blocks the performance of a sensorimotor skill.

Parkinson's Disease

  • Damage to the substantia nigra reduces dopamine production, impairing perceptual-motor learning and inhibiting closed skills.

Huntington's Disease

  • A genetic disorder caused by a repeat expansion in the gene for huntingtin, leading to overproduction in the basal ganglia and causing sensory and motor skill impairment.

Deep Brain Stimulation

  • Surgically implanting electrodes in specific brain regions to send electrical pulses that disrupt abnormal brain signals, helping to control motor symptoms like tremors and rigidity.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

  • Vivid dreams typically occur; increases as the night progresses.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

  • Stages 1-4 of sleep; stages 3-4 are slow-wave sleep (SWS) with no muscle activity.

Slow-Wave Sleep

  • Stages 3 and 4 of sleep, occur longer durations of this happen earlier in the night, with no muscle activity, for rest and repair.

Hypnogram

  • A graph representing the stages of sleep as a function of time.

Glymphatics

  • Crucial in sleep because it clears out toxic byproducts of brain activity.

Sleep Consolidation

  • Sleeping after learning improves memory strength.

Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis

  • An important function of sleep is to reduce weaker synapses to provide more energy and resources for stronger synapses.

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