Declarative and Explicit Memory

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Questions and Answers

What is declarative or explicit memory?

A type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known, and can be consciously accessed.

Define episodic memory.

A type of long-term memory involving the conscious recollection of previous personal experiences along with their context (time, place, emotions, etc.).

What is meant by 'mental time travel' in the context of memory?

The ability to mentally revisit past events through episodic memory.

Describe semantic memory.

A network of associated facts, concepts, and general knowledge about the world. Signup and view all the answers

What is memory consolidation?

The process by which relatively labile, newly acquired information is stabilized and transferred into more permanent long-term memory storage. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process of reconsolidation.

When a previously consolidated memory is reactivated (retrieved), it becomes temporarily unstable or 'labile' again before being restabilized. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a labile memory?

A memory that is readily open to change, modification, or disruption. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the standard consolidation theory of memory.

This theory proposes that memories are initially dependent on the hippocampus for storage and retrieval, but over time, they are transferred to and become dependent on more stable cortical storage systems. Signup and view all the answers

What does the multiple memory trace theory propose about the hippocampus and episodic memories?

It proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of specific, detailed episodic memories, regardless of how old they are. Signup and view all the answers

Define free recall.

Retrieving a memory without the use of specific cues or prompts. Signup and view all the answers

What is cued recall?

Retrieving a memory with the help of some prompts or cues, requiring the individual to supply some related information. Signup and view all the answers

Explain recognition in the context of memory retrieval.

Identifying information as familiar or previously encountered when presented with sufficient cues, essentially recognizing the correct information. Signup and view all the answers

What is directed forgetting?

The process of intentionally trying not to remember specific information, which is often difficult for episodic memories but can be applied to semantic information. Signup and view all the answers

Define passive forgetting.

The natural fading or decay of information over time when it is not rehearsed or retrieved. Signup and view all the answers

What is the depth-of-processing effect?

The finding that processing information more deeply and meaningfully during encoding leads to better recall later. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the transfer-appropriate processing effect.

Memory performance is better when the cognitive processes used during encoding (learning) match the cognitive processes required during retrieval (testing). Signup and view all the answers

What is Ribot's law (or Ribot's gradient) in the context of retrograde amnesia?

The observation that in retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories), recent memories are more susceptible to disruption than older, more remote memories. Signup and view all the answers

Define anterograde amnesia.

The inability to form and encode new long-term explicit memories after the onset of amnesia. Signup and view all the answers

What is agnosia?

The inability to recognize familiar objects, people, sounds, smells, or shapes despite intact sensory function. Signup and view all the answers

Explain proactive interference.

When previously learned information hinders the ability to acquire or recall new information. Signup and view all the answers

What is memory misattribution?

Incorrectly remembering the source or context of a memory, believing one has firsthand experience of an event when they do not. Signup and view all the answers

Define source amnesia.

The inability to recall the source or origin of learned information, despite recalling the information itself. Signup and view all the answers

What is cryptomnesia?

Unconsciously plagiarizing, where an individual mistakenly believes an idea is their own original thought when they actually encountered it previously but forgot the source. Signup and view all the answers

Describe false memories.

Memories of events or details that did not actually occur, but the individual genuinely believes they did. Signup and view all the answers

What is eyewitness memory?

A person's narrative memory recounting an event they personally witnessed. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the basal forebrain play in episodic memory?

It plays a key role by modulating attention, sensory processing, and the integration of information necessary for forming and retrieving episodic memories. Signup and view all the answers

What structures comprise the diencephalon, and what is its role in memory?

The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. It plays a role in processing and relaying information crucial for episodic memory. Signup and view all the answers

What functions are primarily regulated by the frontal cortex in the context of memory and behavior?

The frontal cortex regulates higher-level cognitive functions, including aspects of memory (like source monitoring and working memory), personality, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the hippocampus regarding new explicit memories?

The hippocampus is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories, transforming short-term memories into long-term ones. Signup and view all the answers

According to the provided information, where are semantic memories primarily stored once consolidated, and is the hippocampus still required for their retrieval?

Cortex, hippocampus no longer required (C) Signup and view all the answers

True or False: Once consolidated, episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored entirely in the cortex and no longer require the hippocampus for retrieval, including mental time travel.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

What are episodic memories particularly vulnerable to when they are replayed or retrieved via the hippocampus?

Distortion. Signup and view all the answers

What structures are included in the medial temporal lobe (MTL), and what is its overall function in memory?

The MTL includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex (like entorhinal, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices). It plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of long-term memory?

Explicit (declarative) memory and Implicit (non-declarative) memory. Signup and view all the answers

What does short-term memory consist of, and what is its primary characteristic?

Short-term memory consists of sensory memory and working memory. Its primary characteristic is the capacity to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period. Signup and view all the answers

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes memory flow as: input --> ___ memory --> ST working memory --> _ ___ memory.

sensory, long term Signup and view all the answers

Describe sensory memory and its approximate duration.

Sensory memory is a very brief, temporary storage of sensory input. It has a large capacity but decays extremely quickly, typically within 1-2 seconds. Signup and view all the answers

What is working memory, and what is its estimated capacity according to George Miller?

Working memory is the system responsible for holding and manipulating information currently in the focus of attention. George Miller estimated its capacity to be limited, around '7 plus or minus 2' items or chunks. Signup and view all the answers

According to Baddeley's model, what are the key components that allow information to be actively manipulated and processed simultaneously?

The Central Executive, which manages attention and coordinates activities, manipulates information held in two main subsidiary 'slave' systems: the Phonological Loop (for verbal information) and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (for visual and spatial information). Signup and view all the answers

In Baddeley's model of working memory, what are the primary functions of the Central Executive?

The Central Executive is responsible for manipulating information, monitoring and retrieving information, and controlling attention. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the phonological loop component of Baddeley's model and identify factors that affect its capacity.

The phonological loop is a verbal working memory buffer responsible for storing and rehearsing speech-based information. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster rehearsal allows more items) and word length (shorter words are easier to rehearse and maintain). Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model?

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is a visual working memory buffer responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating visual and spatial information, including object details and locations. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'chunking' in working memory.

Chunking is a strategy to increase the effective capacity of working memory by grouping individual items into larger, meaningful units or 'chunks'. Signup and view all the answers

What is 'recoding' in the context of memory?

Recoding involves converting new, unfamiliar material into a more familiar format to make it easier to remember. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the Delayed Non-Match to Sample (DNMS) task.

The DNMS task is a test of visual recognition memory. A subject is first shown a sample object. After a delay, they are presented with the sample object and a novel object, and must choose the novel (non-matching) object to receive a reward. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the delayed spatial response task.

In a delayed spatial response task, a subject is shown a stimulus at a specific location. After a delay period where the stimulus is absent, the subject must respond based on the remembered location (e.g., point to it, report a pattern). Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the existence of at least two distinct working memory buffers (e.g., phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

Evidence comes from studies showing interference and non-interference effects. Performance on a verbal task is disrupted more by a concurrent verbal task than by a concurrent visual task, and vice versa. This suggests separate processing resources for different modalities. Signup and view all the answers

How does interference affect working memory capacity?

Interference occurs when additional or competing information disrupts the ability to maintain or manipulate items currently held in working memory, effectively reducing its holding capacity. Signup and view all the answers

True or False: According to the concept of non-interference between modalities, the 7 +/- 2 item capacity limit applies independently to the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

True (A) Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive function does the N-back test primarily assess?

The N-back test primarily assesses the ability to update and monitor information held within working memory buffers, requiring rehearsal and manipulation of incoming stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive functions are assessed by the Tower of Hanoi puzzle?

The Tower of Hanoi task primarily assesses higher-level executive functions, particularly planning, problem-solving, goal setting, and sequencing of actions. Signup and view all the answers

Define task switching.

Task switching involves redirecting attention between different tasks, requiring the ability to disengage from one set of rules or goals and engage with a new set, often involving inhibition of the previous task set. Signup and view all the answers

What ability does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) primarily assess?

The WCST primarily assesses cognitive flexibility and task switching, specifically the ability to shift cognitive sets, adapt to changing rules, and inhibit prepotent responses based on previous rules. Signup and view all the answers

Explain stimulus attention and response inhibition.

This refers to the executive control function of selectively attending to relevant stimuli while ignoring distractions, and inhibiting inappropriate or automatic responses in favor of goal-directed actions. Signup and view all the answers

What is involved in 'unconditioned conditioned response control'?

This refers to the ability to inhibit unwanted automatic or reflexive responses, including unconditioned responses (like flinching or blinking) or strongly conditioned responses, often by actively engaging alternative motor responses or cognitive control. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) in working memory and executive function?

The DLPFC is considered the location of the central executive function. It is primarily involved in manipulating information held in working memory and exerting cognitive control over stimulus-driven behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What are the proposed differential functions of the left and right Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC) in working memory according to some models?

Within Baddeley's framework, the left VLPFC is often associated with the phonological loop (verbal working memory maintenance/rehearsal), while the right VLPFC is associated with the visuo-spatial sketchpad (visuo-spatial working memory maintenance/rehearsal). Signup and view all the answers

How does the neurotransmitter dopamine influence working memory?

Dopamine plays a crucial modulatory role in working memory functions, particularly within the prefrontal cortex. Optimal dopamine levels are thought to enhance the stability and persistence of representations held in working memory, affecting signal-to-noise ratio and cognitive control. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the anterior-posterior gradient of prefrontal cortex activation during cognitive tasks.

This refers to the observation that as the complexity or abstractness of a cognitive task increases, the locus of activation within the prefrontal cortex tends to shift from more posterior regions towards more anterior regions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the abstract-concrete gradient in memory?

This refers to the general finding that concrete concepts, which have clearer sensory referents (e.g., 'dog', 'table'), are often remembered better or processed differently than abstract concepts (e.g., 'justice', 'truth'). Signup and view all the answers

What is dysexecutive syndrome?

Dysexecutive syndrome is a cluster of impairments in executive functions, the cognitive processes responsible for planning, organizing, initiating, monitoring, and controlling mental activities and behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What evidence from Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delayed response task studies suggests working memory involves the prefrontal cortex?

Goldman-Rakic found neurons in the prefrontal cortex of monkeys that remained active during the delay period of the task (when the cue was absent but needed to be remembered). This sustained activity, resistant to distractors, was interpreted as reflecting the neural correlate of holding information in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain area is primarily associated with 'frontal circuits' in memory?

The prefrontal cortex. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain areas are primarily associated with 'posterior circuits' in memory?

The hippocampus and temporal lobe structures. Signup and view all the answers

Define non-declarative or implicit memory.

Non-declarative (implicit) memory refers to memory retention that occurs without conscious recollection of the learning experience. It influences behavior unconsciously. Signup and view all the answers

What is priming in the context of memory?

Priming is a form of unconscious (implicit) memory processing where prior exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a later stimulus, often facilitating processing or recognition without conscious awareness of the initial exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the concept of 'familiarity' as a component of memory.

Familiarity is a sense of recognizing something or someone without necessarily retrieving specific contextual details about the prior encounter. It's often described as a feeling of 'knowing' that lacks explicit recollection. Signup and view all the answers

What is skill memory, and what are its two main categories mentioned?

Skill memory (or procedural memory) is memory for learned motor behaviors and cognitive procedures. The two main categories mentioned are cognitive skills (problem-solving strategies) and perceptual-motor skills (motor actions guided by senses). Signup and view all the answers

Define cognitive skills.

Cognitive skills refer to learned strategies and procedures for solving problems or performing mental tasks efficiently. Signup and view all the answers

Define perceptual-motor skills.

Perceptual-motor skills are learned motor patterns and actions that are guided by sensory inputs. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes 'closed skills'?

Closed skills involve performing a task in a stable, predictable environment where there is an established, perfected way to execute the skill, and deviation from this optimal pattern is generally not desired. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the 'power law of learning' in skill acquisition.

The power law of learning describes the relationship between practice and skill improvement. It states that initial gains in performance are typically large and rapid, but with continued practice, the rate of improvement slows down, eventually approaching an asymptote. Signup and view all the answers

Describe massed practice and its general effectiveness for long-term retention.

Massed practice involves concentrating learning or practice sessions into a single, long block of time (e.g., cramming). While it can lead to quick short-term gains, it is generally less effective for long-term retention compared to spaced practice. Signup and view all the answers

What is constant practice, and for which type of skill is it generally most suitable?

Constant practice involves repeatedly performing a single task or skill in the exact same way until it is perfected. It is generally most suitable for acquiring closed skills, where a consistent, optimal movement pattern is desired. Signup and view all the answers

What is variable practice, and for which type of skill is it generally most suitable?

Variable practice involves practicing a skill under a variety of different conditions or performing several related tasks with variations. It encourages adapting movements and trying new approaches, making it particularly suitable for acquiring open skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is skill decay?

Skill decay refers to the loss or decline in performance of a learned skill that occurs over time when the skill is not practiced. Signup and view all the answers

Explain 'transfer specificity' in skill learning.

Transfer specificity refers to the phenomenon where a learned skill often does not transfer well, or sometimes even interferes with learning, in new situations or when applied to similar but distinct skills. Signup and view all the answers

Briefly describe the three stages of Fitts's model of skill learning.

<ol> <li>Cognitive Stage: Initial learning phase, relies heavily on declarative instruction and conscious effort to understand the task. Performance is slow and error-prone.</li> <li>Associative Stage: Intermediate phase with practice; actions become more fluid, less reliance on verbal rules, but still requires concentration and is vulnerable to distraction.</li> <li>Autonomous Stage: Final stage where the skill becomes highly automatic, requiring little conscious attention. Performance is smooth, efficient, and resistant to distraction.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Why are the basal ganglia considered important for skill learning?

The basal ganglia are crucial because skill learning, particularly sensorimotor learning, shares similarities with operant conditioning (learning stimulus-response associations leading to outcomes, S->R->O). The basal ganglia play a key role in initiating and controlling movements and forming stimulus-response habits. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the cortex in skill learning, especially with extensive practice?

The cortex is important for detecting sensory stimuli and controlling movements involved in skills. With extensive practice leading to expertise, changes occur in the neocortex, observable via fMRI (different activation patterns in experts vs. novices) and sometimes MRI (structural changes related to practice). Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the cerebellum in performing learned skills?

The cerebellum is essential for the proper sequencing and timing of movements within a skill. It also helps smooth out motor performance, ensuring actions are coordinated and not jerky. Signup and view all the answers

What effect can transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have on sensorimotor skills?

Transcranial magnetic stimulation applied to relevant motor or premotor areas of the cortex can temporarily disrupt neural activity, thereby blocking or interfering with the performance of a learned sensorimotor skill. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Parkinson's disease and its typical impact on skill learning.

Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder resulting from damage to the substantia nigra, leading to reduced dopamine production. This impairs motor control and significantly impacts perceptual-motor skill learning and the performance of well-learned (especially closed) skills. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Huntington's disease, including its cause and effects on skills and learning.

Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder caused by a repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, leading to the buildup of abnormal huntingtin protein, particularly in the basal ganglia. It causes progressive motor dysfunction (chorea), cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms, slower learning rates, and severe impairment of sensory and motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is deep brain stimulation (DBS), and how is it used as a therapy, for example, in Parkinson's disease?

Deep brain stimulation is a neurosurgical procedure where electrodes are implanted in specific brain regions (like the subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus for Parkinson's). These electrodes deliver continuous electrical pulses to modulate abnormal brain activity, helping to alleviate motor symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, and slowness. Signup and view all the answers

Describe REM sleep.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity similar to waking, muscle atonia (paralysis), and vivid dreaming. Its duration typically increases as the night progresses. Signup and view all the answers

What is NREM sleep, and what are its general stages?

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep encompasses stages 1 through 3/4 of the sleep cycle. Stage 1 is light sleep. Stage 2 makes up about 50% of total sleep time. Stages 3 and 4 are combined as Slow Wave Sleep (SWS), characterized by deep sleep and minimal muscle activity. Signup and view all the answers

What is slow wave sleep (SWS), and when does it primarily occur during the night?

Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) corresponds to stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, characterized by high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves on EEG. It is the deepest stage of sleep with no muscle activity. Longer periods of SWS typically occur earlier in the night. Signup and view all the answers

What is a hypnogram?

A hypnogram is a graph that visually represents the stages of sleep (e.g., Wake, REM, NREM stages 1-4 or 1-3) as they cycle throughout a period of sleep, typically plotted against time. Signup and view all the answers

What is the described function of the glymphatic system, especially during sleep?

The glymphatic system functions like the brain's waste clearance system. During sleep, particularly deep SWS, it becomes more active, flushing out metabolic byproducts and potentially toxic proteins (like beta-amyloid) that accumulate in the brain during wakefulness. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'sleep consolidation' in the context of memory?

Sleep consolidation refers to the process by which memories are strengthened, stabilized, and integrated into long-term storage during sleep. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis (SHY) regarding the function of sleep.

The Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis proposes that wakefulness leads to a net increase in synaptic strength throughout the brain. Sleep, particularly SWS, serves to downscale or weaken many of these synapses, especially weaker ones, returning synaptic strength to a baseline level. This process conserves energy, prevents saturation, and enhances learning capacity for the next day. Signup and view all the answers

What is mental time travel in the context of memory?

The ability to visit the past through memory. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during memory reconsolidation?

A previously consolidated memory is reactivated and becomes temporarily labile (changeable) before being restabilized. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a memory to be labile?

The memory is readily open to change. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the standard consolidation theory.

This theory suggests that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the multiple memory trace theory.

This theory proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of episodic memories, regardless of how long ago they occurred. Signup and view all the answers

Define recognition in memory retrieval.

Identifying previously learned information when presented with sufficient cues. Signup and view all the answers

What is passive forgetting?

The fading of information over time if it is not accessed or rehearsed. Signup and view all the answers

What is Ribot's law or gradient?

In retrograde amnesia, recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older, more remote memories. Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference?

When previously learned information interferes with attempts to acquire new information. Signup and view all the answers

Define misattribution in the context of memory.

Thinking that we have firsthand episodic experience of an event when we do not. Signup and view all the answers

What is source amnesia?

The failure to recall the source of information, representing a disconnect between semantic (recalled) and episodic (not recalled) memory. Signup and view all the answers

Define cryptomnesia.

Thinking an idea is original or yours, but forgetting that you encountered it previously from another source. Signup and view all the answers

What are false memories?

Memories of events that an individual is convinced happened, but they did not actually occur. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the basal forebrain play in memory?

It plays a key role in episodic memory by modulating attention, sensory processing, and the integration of information. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structures make up the diencephalon, and what is its role in memory?

The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus; it plays a role in episodic memory, and damage can cause memory loss. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the frontal cortex related to behavior and memory?

The frontal cortex regulates personality and goal-directed behavior, and it is involved in working memory and retrieving long-term memories. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the hippocampus in memory?

The hippocampus is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories. Signup and view all the answers

Where are semantic memories primarily stored, and is the hippocampus required for their retrieval?

Semantic memories (facts) are predominantly stored in the cortex, and the hippocampus is generally no longer required for retrieval once consolidated. Signup and view all the answers

Where are episodic memories stored, and what is the role of the hippocampus in their retrieval?

Episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored in the cortex, but the hippocampus is required to replay the spatiotemporal context for mental time travel. Signup and view all the answers

What are episodic memories vulnerable to when replayed in the hippocampus?

They are vulnerable to distortion. Signup and view all the answers

What structures are part of the medial temporal lobe, and what is its function in memory?

The medial temporal lobe includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; it plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories. Signup and view all the answers

What components make up short-term memory according to some models, and what is its basic function?

Short-term memory consists of sensory memory and working memory; its function is to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the flow of information in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory.

Input flows into sensory memory, then to short-term (working) memory (capacity often cited as 7 ± 2 items), and potentially into long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory memory?

A temporary memory buffer for sensory input with a very short capacity (around 1-2 seconds). Signup and view all the answers

Define working memory and state its approximate capacity.

Working memory is the system responsible for the temporary holding and manipulation of information; it represents the current focus of attention and has a limited capacity (often cited as 7 ± 2 items). Signup and view all the answers

Describe the main components and function of Baddeley's model of working memory.

In Baddeley's model, information is actively manipulated. A central executive controls and coordinates slave systems: the phonological loop (for verbal information) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (for visual/spatial information). Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

The central executive is responsible for manipulation, monitoring, retrieving information, and allocating attention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's model, and what factors affect its capacity?

It's the verbal working memory buffer responsible for verbal rehearsal. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster = better) and word length (shorter words = better recall). Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking in the context of working memory?

Grouping similar or meaningful items together into a single unit (chunk) to increase the effective capacity of working memory. Signup and view all the answers

Define recoding and provide an example.

Recoding is converting new material into a more familiar format, often by relating it to existing knowledge. Example: Remembering the number sequence 19841776314159 by recoding it as meaningful dates and numbers (1984) (1776) (π ≈ 3.14159). Signup and view all the answers

What does the delayed non-match to sample task test?

It tests visual memory, requiring a subject to indicate which of two novel objects is not the same as one recently seen. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the delayed spatial response task.

A location-specific visual stimulus is presented, followed by a time delay without the stimulus. The subject must then replay or report the pattern or location. Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the existence of at least two separate working memory buffers (like the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

The pattern of interference and non-interference between modalities. Performing two verbal tasks simultaneously causes significant interference, as does performing two visuo-spatial tasks. However, performing one verbal and one visuo-spatial task concurrently shows much less interference. Signup and view all the answers

What is memory interference?

The phenomenon where the recall of certain items hinders the recall of others, often because additional items exceed the limited holding capacity of memory systems. Signup and view all the answers

Explain non-interference between modalities in working memory.

The capacity limit (e.g., 7 ± 2 items) for the phonological loop is relatively separate from the capacity limit of the visuospatial sketchpad, meaning performance on a verbal task is minimally disrupted by a concurrent visuospatial task, and vice versa. Signup and view all the answers

What does the N-back test measure?

It tests the ability to update working memory buffers and direct information rehearsal. Participants listen to a sequence (e.g., numbers) and must report the item heard N positions back from the current one. Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive abilities does the Tower of Hanoi puzzle test, and who might struggle with it?

It tests planning, goal setting, and problem-solving abilities related to the central executive. People with difficulties in central executive function (e.g., prefrontal cortex damage) are often very slow at this task. Signup and view all the answers

What is task switching?

The ability to redirect attention between different tasks, involving following a new rule or set of instructions while ignoring a previous one. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test assess?

It tests task switching and cognitive flexibility. Participants sort cards according to one rule (e.g., color), and then must switch to a new rule (e.g., shape) based on feedback, ignoring the old rule. Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus attention/response inhibition?

Controlling which stimuli receive attention and inhibiting prepotent or habitual motor responses, especially when needing to stay in an action mode rather than reverting to habits. Signup and view all the answers

What is unconditioned/conditioned response control?

The ability to inhibit unwanted responses, including automatic or unconditioned ones (like flinching or blinking in a staring contest), often by activating competing motor responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) in working memory?

It is considered the location of central executive functions, increasing cognitive control over stimulus control and manipulating information held in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What are the proposed functions of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC) in working memory?

The VLPFC is involved in maintaining and rehearsing items in working memory. The left VLPFC is associated with the phonological loop (verbal rehearsal), and the right VLPFC with the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Signup and view all the answers

How does dopamine influence working memory?

Dopamine influences working memory function and can affect the strength and persistence of memories held actively in mind. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the anterior-posterior gradient of prefrontal activation during complex tasks.

Prefrontal activation tends to spread from posterior (back) to anterior (front) regions as the complexity or abstractness of the task increases. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the abstract-concrete gradient related to memory.

Concrete concepts, which have clear sensory referents (e.g., 'dog'), are often remembered better or processed differently than abstract concepts (e.g., 'justice'). Signup and view all the answers

What evidence from Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delay tests suggests working memory is located in the prefrontal cortex?

Neurons in the prefrontal cortex remained active during the delay period (when the cue was gone) in tasks requiring monkeys to remember a cue location. This sustained activity, thought to reflect working memory maintenance, was not disrupted by visual distractors during the delay. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is primarily associated with frontal circuits in memory?

The prefrontal cortex. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain regions are primarily associated with posterior circuits in memory?

The hippocampus and temporal lobe. Signup and view all the answers

What is non-declarative/implicit memory?

Memory retention without conscious recollection of learning; includes skills and procedures, often thought to involve structures like the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Signup and view all the answers

Define priming memory.

Unconscious memory processing where prior exposure to stimulus items aids subsequent learning or processing of related items. Signup and view all the answers

What is familiarity in the context of memory?

A feeling of recognition without necessarily having explicit, declarative knowledge or recall of the context of prior exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What is skill memory, and what are its two main types?

Skill memory involves learned motor behaviors and procedures. Its main types are cognitive skills and perceptual-motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

What are closed skills?

Skills performed in a predictable environment where there is a perfected, optimal way of performing the task, and deviation is not desired. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the power law of learning in skill acquisition.

Early gains in learning a skill are typically large and rapid, but with continued practice, the rate of improvement slows down, eventually approaching an asymptote (limit) of skill acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What is massed practice, and what is its effect on learning?

Practicing a skill all at once in a concentrated session. It leads to quick initial gains but is generally not effective for long-term retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is constant practice, and for which type of skill is it most suitable?

Practicing a single task or skill repeatedly under the same conditions until it is perfected. It is most suitable for closed skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is variable practice, and for which type of skill is it most suitable?

Practicing several variations of a task or different related tasks, trying out new approaches. It is most suitable for open skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is transfer specificity in skill learning?

The phenomenon where a learned skill does not easily transfer to new situations, and may even interfere with learning similar but distinct skills. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the three stages of Fitts's model of skill learning.

<ol> <li>Cognitive stage: Initial learning where declarative instruction is beneficial, effortful performance. 2. Associative stage: Intermediate stage with practice, performance becomes smoother but still requires conscious attention and is vulnerable to distraction. 3. Autonomous stage: Skill becomes highly proficient, automatic, requires little attention, and is resistant to distraction.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the basal ganglia important for skill memory?

The basal ganglia are crucial for skill learning (especially sensorimotor learning), similar to their role in operant conditioning (linking stimuli/contexts to responses and outcomes, S-R-O). Damage interferes with skill acquisition. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the cortex in skill memory?

The cortex is important for detecting stimuli and controlling movements involved in skills. With extensive practice, changes associated with skill development become evident in the cortex (e.g., differences in fMRI activity between experts and novices, structural MRI changes). Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the cerebellum in skill memory?

The cerebellum is essential for the timing and sequencing of behaviors, and for smoothing out movements, ensuring coordinated and fluid performance. Signup and view all the answers

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) used for in studying skill memory?

TMS can be used to temporarily disrupt activity in specific brain regions, allowing researchers to block the performance of a sensorimotor skill temporarily and study the role of that region. Signup and view all the answers

How does Parkinson's disease affect skill memory?

Parkinson's involves damage to the substantia nigra, reducing dopamine production. This impairs perceptual-motor learning and particularly inhibits the performance and learning of closed skills, which rely heavily on the basal ganglia. Signup and view all the answers

What causes Huntington's disease, and how does it affect skill memory?

Huntington's is a genetic disorder caused by a gene mutation leading to overproduction of the huntingtin protein, particularly damaging the basal ganglia. It leads to slower learning rates and eventually complete impairment of sensory and motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is deep brain stimulation (DBS) used for in Parkinson's disease?

DBS is a therapy involving surgically implanted electrodes in specific brain regions (often parts of the basal ganglia or thalamus) that send electrical pulses to disrupt abnormal brain signals, helping control motor symptoms. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes REM sleep?

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage where vivid dreams typically occur. Brain activity resembles wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed. REM periods generally increase in duration as the night progresses. Signup and view all the answers

What is NREM sleep?

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep encompasses stages 1-4 (or 1-3 in newer classifications). Stage 1 is light sleep, Stage 2 makes up about 50% of sleep time, and Stages 3/4 are deep Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) with minimal muscle activity. Signup and view all the answers

What is slow wave sleep (SWS)?

SWS corresponds to stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, characterized by high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves on an EEG. Longer durations typically occur earlier in the night. There is minimal muscle activity, and it's considered deep, restorative sleep. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the glymphatic system during sleep?

The glymphatic system becomes more active during sleep, clearing out toxic metabolic byproducts (like beta-amyloid) that accumulate in the brain during wakefulness. It's sometimes described as 'flushing the brain's toilet'. Signup and view all the answers

What is sleep consolidation of memory?

The process by which sleeping after learning helps stabilize and strengthen memory traces, improving later recall. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis of sleep.

This hypothesis proposes that wakefulness leads to a net increase in synaptic strength throughout the brain. Sleep, particularly SWS, serves to downscale or prune weaker synapses, reducing energy demands and optimizing neural networks by preserving relatively stronger synapses. Signup and view all the answers

What is episodic memory?

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of previous experiences together with their context in terms of time, place, associated emotions, etc. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by mental time travel?

The ability to visit the past through memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is consolidation in memory?

The period of time where information is moved into longer-term memory, typically taking about one month. Signup and view all the answers

What is reconsolidation?

The process where a previously consolidated memory is reactivated and becomes temporarily labile (changeable) before being restabilized. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the standard consolidation theory.

This theory posits that memories are temporarily stored in the hippocampus until they can be transferred to a more stable cortical storage system. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the multiple memory trace theory.

This theory proposes that the hippocampus is always involved in the storage and retrieval of episodic memories, regardless of how long ago they occurred. Signup and view all the answers

What is recognition memory?

Identifying previously learned information when presented with cues; you just have to recognize the info. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the depth-of-processing effect.

Deeper, more meaningful processing of information leads to better recall. Signup and view all the answers

What is the transfer-appropriate processing effect?

Memory performance is enhanced when the cognitive processes used during learning (encoding) match the cognitive processes required during retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

Explain Ribot's law/gradient.

In retrograde amnesia, recent memories are more vulnerable to disruption than older, more remote memories. Signup and view all the answers

What is anterograde amnesia?

The inability to encode new memories after the event that caused the amnesia. Signup and view all the answers

Define proactive interference.

Occurs when previously learned information interferes with attempts to acquire new information. Signup and view all the answers

What is misattribution in memory?

Thinking that we have firsthand episodic experience of an event when we actually do not; attributing a memory to the wrong source. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the diencephalon play in memory?

Composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus, it plays a role in episodic memory. Damage can cause memory loss. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the frontal cortex in memory and behavior?

It is the brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior, and it's involved in working memory and retrieval strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory?

It is required for consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories. Signup and view all the answers

Where are episodic memories primarily stored, and is the hippocampus required for their retrieval?

Episodic (autobiographical) memories are stored in the cortex, but the hippocampus is required to replay the spatial and temporal context for mental time travel. Signup and view all the answers

What is the medial temporal lobe, and what is its role in memory?

The innermost portion of the temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and neighboring cortex; it plays a crucial role in forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative (explicit) memories. Signup and view all the answers

What is short-term memory?

It consists of sensory memory and working memory; it's the capacity to hold a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short period. Signup and view all the answers

What is working memory?

The current focus of attention; has a limited capacity (often cited as 7±2 items) and duration. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Baddeley's model of working memory.

Information is actively manipulated, and multiple processes can occur simultaneously. The model includes a CENTRAL EXECUTIVE that manipulates a Phonological Loop (verbal) and a Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (visual/spatial). Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's model?

It is responsible for manipulation, monitoring, retrieving information, and controlling attention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the phonological loop in Baddeley's model?

A verbal working memory buffer used for verbal rehearsal. Its capacity is affected by speech speed (faster = better) and word length (shorter = better). Signup and view all the answers

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model?

A visual working memory buffer that handles object and location details of a memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking in memory?

Grouping similar items together into a single meaningful unit (chunk) to increase the amount of information held in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the existence of at least two working memory buffers (like the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad)?

The observation of interference within modalities (e.g., two verbal tasks interfere more than a verbal and a visual task) and non-interference between modalities. Signup and view all the answers

What causes interference in working memory?

Additional items exceeding the holding capacity interfere with maintaining existing items. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'non-interference between modalities' mean in working memory?

The capacity limit (e.g., 7 +/- 2 or fewer items) in the phonological loop is separate from the capacity limit in the visuospatial sketchpad. Signup and view all the answers

What is the N-back test used for?

It's a test that requires updating working memory buffers and directing information rehearsal. Participants listen to a sequence (e.g., numbers) and must report the item presented 'N' positions back from the current one. Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive function does the Tower of Hanoi task assess?

It tests planning, problem-solving, and goal setting, which are functions associated with the central executive. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) assess?

It tests task switching ability. Participants sort cards according to a rule that changes without warning, requiring them to adapt and inhibit the previous rule. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by unconditioned/conditioned response control?

The ability to inhibit unwanted responses, including automatic, unconditioned ones (like flinching or automatic emotional reactions), often by activating alternative motor responses or cognitive strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the DLPFC (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) in working memory?

It is considered the location of central executive function, increasing cognitive control over stimulus response and manipulating information in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What are the proposed roles of the VLPFC (ventrolateral prefrontal cortex) in working memory?

The left VLPFC is associated with the phonological loop, while the right VLPFC is associated with the visuo-spatial loop. It primarily maintains and rehearses items in working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the anterior-posterior gradient in prefrontal cortex activation?

Prefrontal activation tends to spread from posterior to anterior regions as the complexity and abstractness of the task increase. Signup and view all the answers

Contrast place versus state models of working memory.

Place models propose dedicated brain regions (places) for storing working memory information (e.g., PFC). State models suggest working memory involves temporarily activating representations stored elsewhere in the brain (e.g., sensory cortices) into a specific state. Signup and view all the answers

What neurophysiological evidence suggests working memory involves the prefrontal cortex?

Patricia Goldman-Rakic's delay-period activity studies showed neurons in the prefrontal cortex remain active during the delay phase of working memory tasks (when the cue is gone), even with visual distractors. This sustained activity is thought to reflect active maintenance of information. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain circuits are primarily associated with working memory and executive control?

Frontal circuits, particularly involving the prefrontal cortex. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain circuits are primarily associated with long-term declarative memory consolidation?

Posterior circuits, including the hippocampus and temporal lobes. Signup and view all the answers

What are cognitive skills?

Learned strategies and different ways of solving problems or performing mental tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What are perceptual-motor skills?

Learned motor skills guided by sensory inputs. Signup and view all the answers

What defines closed skills?

Skills performed in predictable environments where there is an optimal, perfected way of performing the task, and deviation is undesirable. Signup and view all the answers

What does the power law of learning describe?

Initial gains in learning a skill are large and rapid, but subsequent gains with additional practice become progressively smaller, eventually leading to an asymptote. Signup and view all the answers

What is massed practice?

Practicing a skill continuously without rest periods; leads to quick initial gains but is generally less effective for long-term retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is constant practice?

Repeating the exact same task or skill over and over; effective for perfecting closed skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is variable practice?

Practicing a skill under varied conditions or performing variations of the task; effective for developing adaptable open skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is transfer specificity?

The phenomenon where a learned skill does not transfer well to new, even similar, situations, and may sometimes interfere with learning related skills. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Fitts's three-stage model of skill learning.

<ol> <li>Cognitive stage: Initial learning, relies on declarative instruction and conscious effort. 2. Associative stage: Intermediate stage, performance becomes smoother, less reliant on instruction, but still requires attention and is vulnerable to distraction. 3. Autonomous stage: Skill becomes automatic, requires little attention, can be performed while doing other things, less distractible.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the basal ganglia play in skill learning?

Crucial for learning and executing sensorimotor skills, particularly those involving sequences and habit formation, similar to operant conditioning (S-R-O learning). Damage impairs skill learning. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the cortex play in skill learning?

Important for detecting stimuli (sensory cortex) and controlling movements (motor cortex). With extensive practice, neocortical changes associated with skill development become evident (e.g., altered brain activity patterns, structural changes). Signup and view all the answers

What is the cerebellum's role in skill learning?

Essential for timing, coordination, and sequencing of behaviors, ensuring smooth and accurate performance of motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic pulses to temporarily activate or inhibit specific brain regions. It can be used to temporarily block the performance of a sensorimotor skill to study brain function. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Parkinson's disease and its effect on skill learning.

A neurodegenerative disorder caused by damage to the substantia nigra, leading to reduced dopamine production. It impairs perceptual-motor learning and particularly inhibits the performance and learning of closed skills. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Huntington's disease and its effect on skill learning.

A genetic disorder caused by a repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene, leading to overproduction of the huntingtin protein, particularly damaging the basal ganglia. It causes motor symptoms (chorea), cognitive decline, slower learning rates, and impairment of sensory and motor skills. Signup and view all the answers

What is deep brain stimulation (DBS)?

A surgical procedure used, for example, in Parkinson's therapy, involving implanting electrodes in specific brain regions (like the basal ganglia or thalamus). These electrodes send electrical pulses to disrupt abnormal brain signals, helping control motor symptoms. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the glymphatic system during sleep?

It acts like the brain's waste clearance system, becoming more active during sleep to flush out toxic metabolic byproducts that accumulate during wakefulness. Signup and view all the answers

What is the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY)?

The theory that sleep serves to downscale synaptic connections, particularly weaker ones, that were potentiated during wakefulness. This renormalization conserves energy and resources and prevents synaptic saturation. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Declarative/Explicit Memory

Long-term memory of facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

Memory of specific events, including context (time, place, emotions).