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Questions and Answers

What is a primary consequence of living in a sedentary culture according to the current situation?

Lower instances of chronic diseases

Increase in muscle mass

Higher rates of obesity (correct)

Decrease in social physique anxiety

Which phase in the General Adaptation Syndrome indicates a decline in performance due to excessive stressors?

Supercompensation phase

Overtraining phase (correct)

Alarm phase

Resistance phase

What factor contributes primarily to body dysmorphia in individuals?

Concern for physical health

High levels of confidence

Positive social support

Misinterpretation of one's appearance (correct)

During which intensity of exercise is the greatest reduction in state anxiety likely experienced?

30-70% max heart rate Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the parasympathetic system in relation to exercise and cardiovascular disease?

To enhance functioning and reduce CVD risk Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT associated with autonomy discouraging behaviors?

Offering choices related to goals Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential negative effect of over-reliance on feedback?

It can decrease feelings of autonomy. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines 'passion' in the context of activity engagement?

A strong intrinsic desire to participate due to enjoyment. Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation noted in current research regarding health behavior change?

Lack of follow-up with participants after program completion. Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy is most effective for using rewards in behavior change?

Withholding rewards until specific improvements are earned. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of motivation is driven by personal interest and enjoyment of a task?

Intrinsic Motivation Signup and view all the answers

What mindset is characterized by the belief that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed?

Growth Mindset Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of the Transtheoretical Model involves actively changing behavior?

Action Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the belief that experiencing one setback in behavior change means complete failure?

Abstinence Violation Effect Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive strategy is used to promote awareness during the Precontemplation stage?

Environmental Reevaluation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between a manager and a leader?

Managers handle scheduling and organization while leaders provide vision and direction. Signup and view all the answers

According to the Trait Approach, what is suggested about leaders?

Leaders are born with various personality characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

What is considered essential to a leader's effectiveness according to the Behavioral Approach?

Emphasizing both consideration and initiating structures. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT listed as a quality of a good leader?

Aggressiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the recommended practices for coaching young athletes?

Establish clear expectations to maintain order. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following should NOT be used when giving corrective feedback?

Hostile or demeaning language. Signup and view all the answers

An effective leader should communicate in a way that does which of the following?

Enhances pride and morale among team members. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect is emphasized in the guidelines for leadership in the pursuit of excellence?

Providing cognitive, emotional, and technical training. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most effective method for improving self-efficacy?

Mastering new experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis suggests exercise acts as a positive distraction from stress?

Distraction hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the aerobic threshold?

The point where anaerobic energy systems begin to contribute more Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of active listening?

Paying attention to both verbal and non-verbal communication Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes muscle hypertrophy?

The increase in muscle size Signup and view all the answers

Which exercise intensity is optimal for improving mood?

Low to moderate intensity Signup and view all the answers

What negative consequence can result from unpleasant experiences in physical education classes?

Lower physical activity levels in adulthood Signup and view all the answers

Which psychological factor is linked to extrinsic motivation?

Perfectionism Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the common barriers to adopting positive health behaviors?

Immediate gratification from unhealthy choices Signup and view all the answers

How long does it typically take to form a new habit?

10 weeks Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis supports the idea that exercise can enhance cognitive functioning through social connections?

Social interaction hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reason people may fail to adhere to long-term health behavior changes?

Unrealistic goal setting Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is NOT true regarding girls in physical education and sports?

Girls generally receive more encouragement than boys Signup and view all the answers

What can reflective statements help achieve in communication?

Promoting self-discovery Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Current Situation

Sedentary culture, with emphasis placed on work over health and curative solutions over preventative measures.
Rising rates of obesity, chronic diseases, and inflammation
Projected future where children may not live longer than their parents due to unhealthy lifestyles
High prevalence of obesity in adults and children
Body dysmorphia, including the false perception of body size, contributes to motivation for change

Motivations to Change Health Behavior

Social physique anxiety, or self-consciousness of appearance around other people, drives motivation for change
People seek confidence in their work and abilities
Exercise is often motivated by anxiety surrounding physical appearance

General Adaptation Syndrome

The body's response to stress, progressing through three phases:
- Alarm phase: initial response to stress, with system activation
- Resistance phase: adaptation occurs, and the system returns to baseline
- Supercompensation phase: Increased performance capacity following adaptation
- Overtraining phase: performance suppression due to exceeding stress capacity
Chronic catabolic state, resulting from excessive stress, leads to:
- Decreased muscle mass
- Increased injury risk
- Impaired immune system
Regular exercise promotes parasympathetic nervous system activity, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease

Reduced State Anxiety

Exercise reduces anxiety, especially at moderate intensity (30-70% of maximum heart rate)
Arousal, the physical and mental energy used in response to a stimulus, can be misinterpreted as a threat, leading to anxiety
For novice exercisers, high intensity exercise can be perceived as overly stressful

Improved Mood

Exercise consistently improves mood, independently of daily fluctuations in mood
Increased exercise enjoyment leads to increased intrinsic motivation and exercise success
Autonomy, feeling in control of one's actions, plays a crucial role in motivation and enjoyment

Psychological Mechanisms for Improved Mood

Distraction hypothesis: exercise provides a positive distraction from daily stressors
Endorphin hypothesis: exercise releases endorphins, contributing to improved mood
Thermogenic hypothesis: elevated core temperature reduces somatic (physical) anxiety
Social interaction hypothesis: authentic social connections, like those found in blue zones, enhance well-being and mood

Increased Self Esteem

Exercise improves self-esteem and body image, especially for women experiencing menopausal symptoms
Multiple sources of self-efficacy contribute to overall self-esteem

Depression: Prevention and Symptom Reduction

Exercise effectively prevents and reduces the symptoms of depression, especially when:
- Performed 3 times per week for 5 weeks
- At low to moderate intensity
- For 20 to 60 minutes per session

Promoting Physical Activity to Improve Specific Fitness Variables

Exercise improves muscle endurance, strength, hypertrophy and power
VO2 max, the maximum capacity to convert oxygen into ATP (energy), increases with exercise
Lactate accumulation during exercise is processed by the liver back into glucose
Aerobic threshold: the point where the anaerobic energy system contributes to energy production
Anaerobic threshold: the point where lactate clearance can no longer keep up with accumulation
Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) assess body composition

Physical Activity, Cognitive Functioning and Health Among Children and Elderly

Children
- Bodyweight HIIT training is a suitable modality
- Active games promote decision-making and learning skills
- Moderate to vigorous intensity exercise can reduce ADHD symptoms
- Exercise promotes intrinsic motivation for physical activity
Elderly
- Exercise increases telomere length and prevents premature degradation of DNA
- Longer telomeres correlate with enhanced cognitive function

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Healthy People Statistics (Healthy People 2030)

Habits create a mental efficiency by automating behaviors, freeing up resources for other tasks
Habit formation typically takes around 10 weeks

Causes of Self-Destructive Behaviors

Stress and boredom contribute to overeating, decreasing mindfulness around food choices

Barriers to Positive Health Behavior

Lack of perceived immediate benefits
Lack of a personal purpose beyond self-interest
Time constraints
Negative views of exercise as punishment
Unrealistic goals leading to burnout
Exhaustion, a necessary component of achieving satisfaction, is often avoided

Physical Education, Extracurricular Sports and Health

Negative experiences in physical education classes can create lasting negative attitudes towards physical activity
Childhood physical activity is a strong predictor of adult physical activity.

Girls, PE, Sport and Physical Activity

Girls face less encouragement to participate in physical activity in school and at home
Girls often experience high levels of self-consciousness
Combined-gender PE classes might reinforce stereotypes about boys' superiority in physical activity.

Mental and Psychological Barriers to Physical Activity

Low perceived competence, or lack of confidence in performing a task
Perfectionism often leads to extrinsic motivation, rather than intrinsic enjoyment of the activity.

Measuring Long Term Adherence to Health Behavior Change

Self-reported adherence is often biased by an overestimation of success and an underestimation of challenges.
Long-term adherence is typically defined as maintaining a behavior for a minimum of 6 months

Adherence to Changes: Best Practices

Cognitive strategies focus on thoughts and psychology, while behavioral strategies focus on actions and behaviors.

Self Efficacy: Determining Efficacy Judgements

Performance outcomes, including perceived difficulty and required effort, influence self-efficacy
Vicarious experiences, both from others and oneself, contribute to self-efficacy
Verbal persuasion, including positive self-talk and encouragement from others, builds self-efficacy
Physiological feedback, associating positive feelings with exercise, strengthens self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is a key determinant of behavior change, with mastery experiences being the most powerful predictor.

Mindfulness Defined

Mindfulness is a state of being present and aware, with a focus on both cognitive (thoughts) and somatic (physical) states.

Grit

Grit is a combination of passion and perseverance, a trait that can be developed through deliberate practice.
Developing Grit:
- Identify and cultivate passions and interests
- Engage in deliberate practice to refine skills
- Cultivate a sense of meaning in one's work
- Share stories about individuals exhibiting grit

Breakdowns in Communication

Assumptions about the other person's understanding
Lack of trust
Fear of negative judgment
Inconsistent messaging
Belief that silence is safer
Mind reading
Preparing the next verbal response while the other person is talking

Tips for Improving Communication

Acknowledge the other person's perspective
Demonstrate empathy
Communicate clearly and concisely
Use a positive approach
Encourage questions
Practice active listening
Maintain privacy
Pay attention to nonverbal communication

Communication: Overarching Findings

Communication applies across various contexts
Both content and emotions are important in communication
Both verbal and non-verbal cues are important in communication
Interpersonal (between two people) and intrapersonal (inner dialogue with oneself) communication are essential

Non-Verbal Communication

Neutral spine posture:
- Increases perceived confidence and receptiveness
- Promotes proper breathing and parasympathetic activity
Body positions:
- Crossed arms: closed off
- Hands behind head: superiority, arrogance
- Lean back: disengaged, bored
Eye contact:
- Enhanced memory and recall of information
- Perceived as more intelligent
- Higher order cognitive processing of social interactions

Voice Communication

Varying volume, speed, and tone to prevent monotony.

Receiving Messages Effectively

Active listening, characterized by supportive, attentive, and empathetic listening
Active listening involves paying attention to both words and emotions, as well as verbal and non-verbal cues.

Reflective Statements

Allow the interviewer to respond rather than leading the discussion
Rephrase what the interviewee said for understanding
Summarize key points for clarity

Example Starting Prompts for Reflective Statements

"You are..." (Observation)
"It sounds like..." (Observation)
"It seems like..." (Observation)
"What I'm hearing is..." (Observation)
"You seem to be saying..." (Observation)

Reflecting: Potential Pitfalls

Evaluating: making judgments
Judging: expressing opinions
Diagnosing or solving the problem: jumping to conclusions
Reflections are intended to enhance client self-discovery and promote self-determined motivation for change.

Leading vs Managing

Manager: focuses on tasks, scheduling, budgeting, and organizing
Leader: provides vision, direction, and goals for the organization

Leaders: Born or Made

Trait approach: Leaders possess a variety of personality characteristics, but no set of traits guarantees success.
Behavioral approach: Leaders are developed through experience and skills, including:
- Consideration: focused on relationships, trust, and respect
- Initiating Structure: focused on goals and objectives

Leader Qualities

Integrity
Flexibility
Loyalty
Confidence
Accountability
Candor (honesty)
Preparedness
Resourcefulness
Self-discipline
Patience

Behavioral Guidelines for Coaching Young Athletes

Do:
- Reinforce positive behaviors immediately with praise.
- Reward effort as much as results.
- Provide encouragement and corrective instruction after mistakes.
- Focus on what the athlete did well, not what they did poorly.
- Maintain order with clear expectations.
- Use positive reinforcement to strengthen positive behaviors.
- Use encouragement selectively, making it meaningful.
- Provide technical instruction in a clear and concise manner and demonstrate skills whenever possible.
Don't:
- Punish athletes for mistakes.
- Give corrective feedback harshly, as this can increase frustration and resentment.
- Constant nagging or threats, which can lead to chaos and disengagement.

Guidelines for Leadership in the Pursuit of Excellence

Creating a compelling vision for followers
Inspirational communication that instils pride and enhances morale
Intellectual stimulation that helps followers understand the bigger picture
Providing individual attention and support
Acknowledging individual contributions
Promoting self-efficacy and self-esteem
Providing cognitive, emotional, and technical training

Leadership: Autonomy Supportive vs. Autonomy Discouraging

Autonomy Supportive:
- Encourages initiative and participation in decision-making.
- Offers choices related to goals and values.
- Provides rationales for tasks.
- Acknowledges negative feelings toward tasks.
- Maintains a non-judgmental approach.
- Demonstrates empathy.
Autonomy Discouraging:
- Authoritarian and controlling.
- Uses constant monitoring.
- Attempts to influence aspects of the individual's personal life.
- Uses intimidation tactics.
- Makes individuals feel guilty.
- Withholds attention as a form of punishment.

Feedback and Reinforcement

Feedback schedule:
- Start with continuous feedback and gradually transition to intermittent feedback.
- Reward small improvements.
- Overreliance on feedback can decrease autonomy.
Passion: enjoyment of activity and intrinsic motivation.
Obsession: being controlled by an activity, driven by extrinsic motivation.
Rewards shouldn't be used for control, but as a supplemental motivation for hard work.

Topic 3: Health Behavior Change Theories and Models

Limitations in Current Research

Lack of theoretical framework to guide research and interventions
Imposition of protocols, rather than promoting autonomy
Misunderstanding of client goals and priorities.
Lack of emphasis on client choice and autonomy
Lack of follow-up with dropouts (intention to treat analysis)
Insufficient attention to the alignment of thoughts and actions.

Mediating Variables

Variables that explain the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Mediators provide insights into the mechanisms underlying observed effects.

Theory: An Application

Why? Provide a rational for adopting a specific approach to health behavior change.
What? Define specific areas to monitor, measure, or compare within the intervention.
How? Shape program strategies to effectively reach individuals or organizations.

Sources of Motivation

Person-centered: personal characteristics.
Situational-centered: environmental factors.
Interactive: combination of personal and situational factors.

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation: driven by interest, value, and enjoyment of the task.
Extrinsic motivation: driven by external rewards, pressure, or outcomes.

Ego vs Mastery Orientation

Ego orientation: focused on outcomes, such as physical appearance.
Mastery orientation: focused on the process, focused on health and well-being.
High dropout rates within the first 6 months of exercise programs are common.
Mastery is defined by the client, with guidance from the practitioner.

Coping with Failure (or not) Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness: acquired belief that one has no control over negative events/outcomes.
Growth mindset: belief that intelligence and abilities are malleable and can be developed through effort.
Fixed mindset: belief that personality traits and talents are unchangeable.

Relapse Prevention Model

Abstinence violation effect: belief that one setback signifies complete failure.

Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change)

Precontemplation: unawareness or denial of problem.
Contemplation: considering change but not yet committed.
Preparation: preparing for change and taking initial steps.
Action: actively engaging in behavior change.
Maintenance: sustaining the change and preventing relapse.
Termination: full integration of the change into lifestyle.
Cognitive strategies (consciousness raising, dramatic relief, environmental reevaluation, self-reevaluation, social liberation) are most effective in the precontemplation and contemplation stages.
Behavioral strategies (counterconditioning, helping relationships, reinforcement management, self-liberation, stimulus control) are more effective in the preparation, action, and maintenance stages.

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