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Questions and Answers
What is a primary consequence of living in a sedentary culture according to the current situation?
Which phase in the General Adaptation Syndrome indicates a decline in performance due to excessive stressors?
What factor contributes primarily to body dysmorphia in individuals?
During which intensity of exercise is the greatest reduction in state anxiety likely experienced?
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What is the primary role of the parasympathetic system in relation to exercise and cardiovascular disease?
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Which characteristic is NOT associated with autonomy discouraging behaviors?
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What is one potential negative effect of over-reliance on feedback?
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Which of the following best defines 'passion' in the context of activity engagement?
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What is a limitation noted in current research regarding health behavior change?
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Which strategy is most effective for using rewards in behavior change?
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Which type of motivation is driven by personal interest and enjoyment of a task?
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What mindset is characterized by the belief that one's abilities and intelligence can be developed?
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Which stage of the Transtheoretical Model involves actively changing behavior?
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What is the term for the belief that experiencing one setback in behavior change means complete failure?
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Which cognitive strategy is used to promote awareness during the Precontemplation stage?
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What is the primary distinction between a manager and a leader?
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According to the Trait Approach, what is suggested about leaders?
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What is considered essential to a leader's effectiveness according to the Behavioral Approach?
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Which of the following is NOT listed as a quality of a good leader?
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What is one of the recommended practices for coaching young athletes?
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Which of the following should NOT be used when giving corrective feedback?
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An effective leader should communicate in a way that does which of the following?
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What aspect is emphasized in the guidelines for leadership in the pursuit of excellence?
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What is the most effective method for improving self-efficacy?
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Which hypothesis suggests exercise acts as a positive distraction from stress?
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What is the aerobic threshold?
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What is a key characteristic of active listening?
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Which statement best describes muscle hypertrophy?
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Which exercise intensity is optimal for improving mood?
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What negative consequence can result from unpleasant experiences in physical education classes?
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Which psychological factor is linked to extrinsic motivation?
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What is one of the common barriers to adopting positive health behaviors?
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How long does it typically take to form a new habit?
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Which hypothesis supports the idea that exercise can enhance cognitive functioning through social connections?
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What is a primary reason people may fail to adhere to long-term health behavior changes?
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Which statement is NOT true regarding girls in physical education and sports?
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What can reflective statements help achieve in communication?
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Study Notes
Current Situation
- Sedentary culture, with emphasis placed on work over health and curative solutions over preventative measures.
- Rising rates of obesity, chronic diseases, and inflammation
- Projected future where children may not live longer than their parents due to unhealthy lifestyles
- High prevalence of obesity in adults and children
- Body dysmorphia, including the false perception of body size, contributes to motivation for change
Motivations to Change Health Behavior
- Social physique anxiety, or self-consciousness of appearance around other people, drives motivation for change
- People seek confidence in their work and abilities
- Exercise is often motivated by anxiety surrounding physical appearance
General Adaptation Syndrome
- The body's response to stress, progressing through three phases:
- Alarm phase: initial response to stress, with system activation
- Resistance phase: adaptation occurs, and the system returns to baseline
- Supercompensation phase: Increased performance capacity following adaptation
- Overtraining phase: performance suppression due to exceeding stress capacity
- Chronic catabolic state, resulting from excessive stress, leads to:
- Decreased muscle mass
- Increased injury risk
- Impaired immune system
- Regular exercise promotes parasympathetic nervous system activity, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease
Reduced State Anxiety
- Exercise reduces anxiety, especially at moderate intensity (30-70% of maximum heart rate)
- Arousal, the physical and mental energy used in response to a stimulus, can be misinterpreted as a threat, leading to anxiety
- For novice exercisers, high intensity exercise can be perceived as overly stressful
Improved Mood
- Exercise consistently improves mood, independently of daily fluctuations in mood
- Increased exercise enjoyment leads to increased intrinsic motivation and exercise success
- Autonomy, feeling in control of one's actions, plays a crucial role in motivation and enjoyment
Psychological Mechanisms for Improved Mood
- Distraction hypothesis: exercise provides a positive distraction from daily stressors
- Endorphin hypothesis: exercise releases endorphins, contributing to improved mood
- Thermogenic hypothesis: elevated core temperature reduces somatic (physical) anxiety
- Social interaction hypothesis: authentic social connections, like those found in blue zones, enhance well-being and mood
Increased Self Esteem
- Exercise improves self-esteem and body image, especially for women experiencing menopausal symptoms
- Multiple sources of self-efficacy contribute to overall self-esteem
Depression: Prevention and Symptom Reduction
- Exercise effectively prevents and reduces the symptoms of depression, especially when:
- Performed 3 times per week for 5 weeks
- At low to moderate intensity
- For 20 to 60 minutes per session
Promoting Physical Activity to Improve Specific Fitness Variables
- Exercise improves muscle endurance, strength, hypertrophy and power
- VO2 max, the maximum capacity to convert oxygen into ATP (energy), increases with exercise
- Lactate accumulation during exercise is processed by the liver back into glucose
- Aerobic threshold: the point where the anaerobic energy system contributes to energy production
- Anaerobic threshold: the point where lactate clearance can no longer keep up with accumulation
- Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) assess body composition
Physical Activity, Cognitive Functioning and Health Among Children and Elderly
- Children
- Bodyweight HIIT training is a suitable modality
- Active games promote decision-making and learning skills
- Moderate to vigorous intensity exercise can reduce ADHD symptoms
- Exercise promotes intrinsic motivation for physical activity
- Elderly
- Exercise increases telomere length and prevents premature degradation of DNA
- Longer telomeres correlate with enhanced cognitive function
Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Healthy People Statistics (Healthy People 2030)
- Habits create a mental efficiency by automating behaviors, freeing up resources for other tasks
- Habit formation typically takes around 10 weeks
Causes of Self-Destructive Behaviors
- Stress and boredom contribute to overeating, decreasing mindfulness around food choices
Barriers to Positive Health Behavior
- Lack of perceived immediate benefits
- Lack of a personal purpose beyond self-interest
- Time constraints
- Negative views of exercise as punishment
- Unrealistic goals leading to burnout
- Exhaustion, a necessary component of achieving satisfaction, is often avoided
Physical Education, Extracurricular Sports and Health
- Negative experiences in physical education classes can create lasting negative attitudes towards physical activity
- Childhood physical activity is a strong predictor of adult physical activity.
Girls, PE, Sport and Physical Activity
- Girls face less encouragement to participate in physical activity in school and at home
- Girls often experience high levels of self-consciousness
- Combined-gender PE classes might reinforce stereotypes about boys' superiority in physical activity.
Mental and Psychological Barriers to Physical Activity
- Low perceived competence, or lack of confidence in performing a task
- Perfectionism often leads to extrinsic motivation, rather than intrinsic enjoyment of the activity.
Measuring Long Term Adherence to Health Behavior Change
- Self-reported adherence is often biased by an overestimation of success and an underestimation of challenges.
- Long-term adherence is typically defined as maintaining a behavior for a minimum of 6 months
Adherence to Changes: Best Practices
- Cognitive strategies focus on thoughts and psychology, while behavioral strategies focus on actions and behaviors.
Self Efficacy: Determining Efficacy Judgements
- Performance outcomes, including perceived difficulty and required effort, influence self-efficacy
- Vicarious experiences, both from others and oneself, contribute to self-efficacy
- Verbal persuasion, including positive self-talk and encouragement from others, builds self-efficacy
- Physiological feedback, associating positive feelings with exercise, strengthens self-efficacy.
- Self-efficacy is a key determinant of behavior change, with mastery experiences being the most powerful predictor.
Mindfulness Defined
- Mindfulness is a state of being present and aware, with a focus on both cognitive (thoughts) and somatic (physical) states.
Grit
- Grit is a combination of passion and perseverance, a trait that can be developed through deliberate practice.
- Developing Grit:
- Identify and cultivate passions and interests
- Engage in deliberate practice to refine skills
- Cultivate a sense of meaning in one's work
- Share stories about individuals exhibiting grit
Breakdowns in Communication
- Assumptions about the other person's understanding
- Lack of trust
- Fear of negative judgment
- Inconsistent messaging
- Belief that silence is safer
- Mind reading
- Preparing the next verbal response while the other person is talking
Tips for Improving Communication
- Acknowledge the other person's perspective
- Demonstrate empathy
- Communicate clearly and concisely
- Use a positive approach
- Encourage questions
- Practice active listening
- Maintain privacy
- Pay attention to nonverbal communication
Communication: Overarching Findings
- Communication applies across various contexts
- Both content and emotions are important in communication
- Both verbal and non-verbal cues are important in communication
- Interpersonal (between two people) and intrapersonal (inner dialogue with oneself) communication are essential
Non-Verbal Communication
- Neutral spine posture:
- Increases perceived confidence and receptiveness
- Promotes proper breathing and parasympathetic activity
- Body positions:
- Crossed arms: closed off
- Hands behind head: superiority, arrogance
- Lean back: disengaged, bored
- Eye contact:
- Enhanced memory and recall of information
- Perceived as more intelligent
- Higher order cognitive processing of social interactions
Voice Communication
- Varying volume, speed, and tone to prevent monotony.
Receiving Messages Effectively
- Active listening, characterized by supportive, attentive, and empathetic listening
- Active listening involves paying attention to both words and emotions, as well as verbal and non-verbal cues.
Reflective Statements
- Allow the interviewer to respond rather than leading the discussion
- Rephrase what the interviewee said for understanding
- Summarize key points for clarity
Example Starting Prompts for Reflective Statements
- "You are..." (Observation)
- "It sounds like..." (Observation)
- "It seems like..." (Observation)
- "What I'm hearing is..." (Observation)
- "You seem to be saying..." (Observation)
Reflecting: Potential Pitfalls
- Evaluating: making judgments
- Judging: expressing opinions
- Diagnosing or solving the problem: jumping to conclusions
- Reflections are intended to enhance client self-discovery and promote self-determined motivation for change.
Leading vs Managing
- Manager: focuses on tasks, scheduling, budgeting, and organizing
- Leader: provides vision, direction, and goals for the organization
Leaders: Born or Made
- Trait approach: Leaders possess a variety of personality characteristics, but no set of traits guarantees success.
- Behavioral approach: Leaders are developed through experience and skills, including:
- Consideration: focused on relationships, trust, and respect
- Initiating Structure: focused on goals and objectives
Leader Qualities
- Integrity
- Flexibility
- Loyalty
- Confidence
- Accountability
- Candor (honesty)
- Preparedness
- Resourcefulness
- Self-discipline
- Patience
Behavioral Guidelines for Coaching Young Athletes
-
Do:
- Reinforce positive behaviors immediately with praise.
- Reward effort as much as results.
- Provide encouragement and corrective instruction after mistakes.
- Focus on what the athlete did well, not what they did poorly.
- Maintain order with clear expectations.
- Use positive reinforcement to strengthen positive behaviors.
- Use encouragement selectively, making it meaningful.
- Provide technical instruction in a clear and concise manner and demonstrate skills whenever possible.
-
Don't:
- Punish athletes for mistakes.
- Give corrective feedback harshly, as this can increase frustration and resentment.
- Constant nagging or threats, which can lead to chaos and disengagement.
Guidelines for Leadership in the Pursuit of Excellence
- Creating a compelling vision for followers
- Inspirational communication that instils pride and enhances morale
- Intellectual stimulation that helps followers understand the bigger picture
- Providing individual attention and support
- Acknowledging individual contributions
- Promoting self-efficacy and self-esteem
- Providing cognitive, emotional, and technical training
Leadership: Autonomy Supportive vs. Autonomy Discouraging
-
Autonomy Supportive:
- Encourages initiative and participation in decision-making.
- Offers choices related to goals and values.
- Provides rationales for tasks.
- Acknowledges negative feelings toward tasks.
- Maintains a non-judgmental approach.
- Demonstrates empathy.
-
Autonomy Discouraging:
- Authoritarian and controlling.
- Uses constant monitoring.
- Attempts to influence aspects of the individual's personal life.
- Uses intimidation tactics.
- Makes individuals feel guilty.
- Withholds attention as a form of punishment.
Feedback and Reinforcement
- Feedback schedule:
- Start with continuous feedback and gradually transition to intermittent feedback.
- Reward small improvements.
- Overreliance on feedback can decrease autonomy.
- Passion: enjoyment of activity and intrinsic motivation.
- Obsession: being controlled by an activity, driven by extrinsic motivation.
- Rewards shouldn't be used for control, but as a supplemental motivation for hard work.
Topic 3: Health Behavior Change Theories and Models
Limitations in Current Research
- Lack of theoretical framework to guide research and interventions
- Imposition of protocols, rather than promoting autonomy
- Misunderstanding of client goals and priorities.
- Lack of emphasis on client choice and autonomy
- Lack of follow-up with dropouts (intention to treat analysis)
- Insufficient attention to the alignment of thoughts and actions.
Mediating Variables
- Variables that explain the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
- Mediators provide insights into the mechanisms underlying observed effects.
Theory: An Application
- Why? Provide a rational for adopting a specific approach to health behavior change.
- What? Define specific areas to monitor, measure, or compare within the intervention.
- How? Shape program strategies to effectively reach individuals or organizations.
Sources of Motivation
- Person-centered: personal characteristics.
- Situational-centered: environmental factors.
- Interactive: combination of personal and situational factors.
Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation: driven by interest, value, and enjoyment of the task.
- Extrinsic motivation: driven by external rewards, pressure, or outcomes.
Ego vs Mastery Orientation
- Ego orientation: focused on outcomes, such as physical appearance.
- Mastery orientation: focused on the process, focused on health and well-being.
- High dropout rates within the first 6 months of exercise programs are common.
- Mastery is defined by the client, with guidance from the practitioner.
Coping with Failure (or not) Learned Helplessness
- Learned helplessness: acquired belief that one has no control over negative events/outcomes.
- Growth mindset: belief that intelligence and abilities are malleable and can be developed through effort.
- Fixed mindset: belief that personality traits and talents are unchangeable.
Relapse Prevention Model
- Abstinence violation effect: belief that one setback signifies complete failure.
Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change)
- Precontemplation: unawareness or denial of problem.
- Contemplation: considering change but not yet committed.
- Preparation: preparing for change and taking initial steps.
- Action: actively engaging in behavior change.
- Maintenance: sustaining the change and preventing relapse.
- Termination: full integration of the change into lifestyle.
- Cognitive strategies (consciousness raising, dramatic relief, environmental reevaluation, self-reevaluation, social liberation) are most effective in the precontemplation and contemplation stages.
- Behavioral strategies (counterconditioning, helping relationships, reinforcement management, self-liberation, stimulus control) are more effective in the preparation, action, and maintenance stages.
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