Darwinism and Religious Thought

Darwinism

• In the late 19th century, Darwinism had a notable impact on religious thought in the United States.
• Mainline Protestants like Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Congregationalists, and Unitarians were particularly influenced.
• Darwinism was embraced in two ways with a scientific explanation of creation and the application of evolutionary principles to religion.
• Some Christians embraced Darwinism as an account of how God created life, viewing evolution as the process God utilized, not the Genesis story.
• Evolutionary principles mirroring Darwinism, were applied to interpret society and economics, influencing interpretations of theology and religion.
• Henry Ward Beecher, a Congregationalist minister, argued for the compatibility of science and religion.
• Beecher suggested theological errors would evolve out of religious doctrine, and theology would evolve toward perfection.
• Lyman Abbott, a theologian, viewed sin as a lapse into animality, suggesting humans would spiritually evolve out of sin, equating evolution with everlasting life.
• Applying evolutionary principles to religion was criticized as an attempt to force the "fad and fashion of evolution" into all aspects of life
• This application was considered a misapplication of scientific concepts to theology.
• Post-Civil War, science was viewed as the source of answers, leading some to abandon traditional religious beliefs due to God's perceived failure to prevent the war.
• Scientism is the belief that science can answer everything and is always true, trusting science because it was considered incontrovertible, some scientists believed that eventually science will know everything.
• Science can provide "how" answers, but may not address philosophical inquiries about purpose and meaning.
• The distinction between the brain, studied by scientists, and the mind was emphasized.

Westward Expansion

• Expansion was fueled by economic opportunities like fur trade, mining, ranching, and farming.
• Driven by a desire for land ownership, especially by former slaves and European immigrants.
• Some sought to escape industrial cities and pursue independence.
• Approximately 40% of settlers failed to make a living and returned East.

The Indian Wars

• The Sand Creek Massacre took place in eastern Colorado and involved the Arapaho tribe.
• Despite the Arapaho village flying an American flag, General Shivington attacked with his troops.
• The village was primarily made up of older men, women, and children.
• Shivington's troops killed, raped, and mutilated the villagers.
• The Black Hills in South Dakota were sacred to the Sioux.
• A treaty recognized that whites would not travel through the Black Hills, but the discovery of gold led to an influx of settlers and miners, infuriating the Sioux.
• The Battle of Little Bighorn followed, where General Custer and his 264 men were defeated by Sitting Bull and his warriors.
• Chief Joseph led the Nez Percé tribe, who lived in the Idaho area, and planned to leave the U.S. for Canada.
• Federal troops intercepted the Nez Percé 30 miles south of the Canadian border, forcing them to march back to the Indian Territory, resulting in many deaths.
• In 1888, Wovoka, a member of the Paiute nation, had a vision and was instructed to spread the Ghost Dance to all Native American tribes
• The Ghost Dance promised the return of dead ancestors, disappearance of white people, and return of game.
• The Ghost Dance spread eastward, causing alarm among white settlers and the U.S. government fearing unification of Native American tribes would result in war.
• Rising tension culminated in the Battle of Wounded Knee.
• Approximately, 500 U.S. troops surrounded the Sioux village, demanding they cease the Ghost Dance and surrender their weapons.
• The Sioux refused and approximately 250 Sioux, including men, women, and children, were killed.

Dawes Severalty Act, Burke Act, Indian Citizenship Act

• Dawes Severalty Act (1887) broke up tribal lands into individual allotments to force Native Americans into farming.
• The Burke Act (1906) granted immediate U.S. citizenship to Native Americans who abandoned tribal life.
• The Indian Citizenship Act (1924) granted full U.S. citizenship to Native Americans, but many states still denied them the right to vote.

Western Industry & Settlement

• Cowboys played a key role in cattle drives (1866-1888), and about 30% were African American or Mexican.
• The expansion of railroads reduced the need for long drives.
• Barbed wire and overgrazing contributed to the decline of open-range cattle drives.
• The Homestead Act (1862) provided land to settlers willing to farm it for five years.
• The Newlands Reclamation Act (1902) funded irrigation projects to promote agriculture but contributed to future environmental issues.
• High costs of farming led many settlers to abandon their claims.
• Closing the frontier marked the end of westward expansion.