Darwin and Evolution

• Charles Darwin's book published in 1859 is titled "On the Origin of Species".

Malthus's Work

• Malthus studied population growth and resource limitation.

Hutton's Work

• Hutton proposed the concept of gradualism, suggesting that geological changes occur slowly over long periods.

Lyell's Work

• Lyell advocated for uniformitarianism, stating that geological processes operating today are the same as those that occurred in the past.
• Darwin began formulating his concept of evolution by natural selection after observing many species and their geographical locations.
• The formation of rock layers and how they change over time was proposed by geologists like Hutton and Lyell.
• Darwin viewed the fossil record as evidence of the change in species over vast periods of time.

Lamarck's theory of evolution includes

• Inheritance of acquired characteristics
• Use and disuse of traits

Definitions

• Artificial selection: Selective breeding of plants and animals to promote the occurrence of desirable traits.
• Natural selection: The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully.
• Fitness (biological): The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment.
• Survival of the fittest: Individuals with traits better suited to the environment survive and reproduce more effectively.
• Homologous structures: Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.
• Directional selection: A mode of natural selection in which a single phenotype is favored, causing the allele frequency to continuously shift in one direction.
• Stabilizing selection: A type of natural selection in which the population mean stabilizes on a particular non-extreme trait value.
• Temporal isolation: When two or more species reproduce at different times, they cannot interbreed.
• Gene pool: The total collection of genes in a population at any one time.
• Taxonomy: The science of naming and classifying organisms.
• Binomial nomenclature: A system for naming species where each species is assigned a two-part name, genus and species.
• If an allele makes up one half of a population's alleles for a given trait, its relative frequency is 50% or 0.5.
• The two main sources of genetic variation are mutations and sexual reproduction.
• Two parts used for scientific names are genus and species; a naming system prevents confusion
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels.
• Air is filtered, warmed, and moistened in the nasal passages.
• Air is forced into the lungs by the contraction of the diaphragm.
• Three ways the body loses water are through urination, perspiration, and exhalation.
• The role of the pancreas in the digestive system is to produce enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and it also releases hormones.
• Chemical digestion begins in the mouth; mechanical digestion begins in the mouth.
• Wastes pass into the rectum through the large intestine.
• The excretory system helps maintain homeostasis by regulating water balance, removing wastes, and controlling blood pressure.
• Examples of an immune system response to attack a specific pathogen are antibody production and cell-mediated immunity.
• Blood flow goes from the: right side of the heart → lungs → left side of the heart → all other systems except the lungs.
• The order from simplest to most complex for the levels of organization in the human body: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems.
• The structure that removes excess water, urea, and metabolic wastes from the blood is the kidney.
• The body's nonspecific defenses against invading pathogens include skin, mucous membranes, saliva, mucus, and tears.
• Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria evolve mechanisms to resist the effects of antibiotics, often caused by overuse or misuse of antibiotics.
• Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus.
• Humans benefit from bacteria through food production, nutrient cycling, and medicines, and in the microbiome.
• Bacteria in the environment have roles in decomposition, nitrogen fixation, and nutrient cycling.
• The body's nonspecific defenses include skin, mucous membranes, inflammation, and fever.

Definitions

• Pathogen: A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease.
• Antibiotics: Medicines that inhibit the growth of or destroy bacteria.
• Inflammatory Response: A body's defense against tissue damage, infection, or allergy.
• Autoimmune Disease: A condition in which the body's immune system attacks its own cells.
• Immunity: The ability of an organism to resist infection.
• Binary fission: A method of asexual reproduction used by prokaryotes.
• The parts of a virus include a capsid and genetic material (DNA or RNA); a retrovirus contains RNA and reverse transcriptase.
• Immunity can be acquired through vaccination or exposure to the disease.
• HIV spreads through bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.

Functions

• Kidney: Filters waste from the blood and produces urine.
• Minerals: Inorganic nutrients the body needs for various functions.
• Nutrients: Substances that provide nourishment essential for growth and the maintenance of life.
• Esophagus: Carries food from the mouth to the stomach.
• Pancreas: Produces enzymes for digestion and hormones that regulate blood sugar.
• Diaphragm: Muscle that helps with breathing.
• Capillaries: Small blood vessels where nutrients and waste exchange.
• Pharynx: The throat, passageway for air and food.
• Larynx: Voice box, involved in sound production
• The three parts of a nucleotide of DNA are a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base(adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine).
• Chargaff's Rule: A=T and C=G.
• If guanine makes up 40% of a DNA sample, adenine would be 10%.
• DNA replication results in two new DNA molecules, each containing one original and one new strand.
• DNA and RNA differ in sugar (DNA=deoxyribose, RNA=ribose), bases (DNA=T, RNA=U), and structure (DNA=double-stranded, RNA=single-stranded).
• The types of RNA involved in protein synthesis are mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
• Transcription: Process where the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA.
• Translation: Process where the mRNA sequence is decoded to produce a specific amino acid chain.
• Codominance: A form of inheritance in which both alleles are equally expressed, like AB blood type.
• A pedigree shows the inheritance of traits in a family; a square represents a male, and a circle represents a female.
• Karyotype: Shows the number and appearance of chromosomes in a cell; a normal human karyotype has 46 chromosomes.
• DNA is copied in a process called replication.
• In eukaryotes, DNA is found in the nucleus.
• tRNA molecule carries amino acids.
• Genes contain instructions for assembling proteins.
• Sickle cell disease is caused by change (mutation) in the DNA sequence that codes for hemoglobin.
• Sex-linked genes are located on sex chromosomes; colorblindness is more common in males due to hemizygosity.
• The stomach breaks down food into a soft, partially digested mixture called chyme.
• The function of proteins includes structural support, enzymes, and transport; the monomers of proteins are amino acids.
• Infectious diseases are spread through direct contact, airborne transmission, contaminated food or water, and vectors.
• The seven taxonomic groups are (broadest to most narrow): Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. (K,P,C,O,F,G,S)