Critical Reading and Reasoning

Critical Reading as Reasoning

• Critical reading goes beyond simple comprehension, requiring evaluation and analysis for reasoned understanding.
• It involves assertion formulation, counterclaim development, and textual evidence determination.
• Critical reading analyzes, evaluates, and questions texts for deeper understanding
• Reasoning makes conclusions from premises.
• Critical reading questions texts and the author's reasoning

Importance of Critical Reading

• Critical reading questions underlying messages, author's purpose, and textual implications.
• Critical reading promotes:
  • Independent thinking via informed judgments based on evidence.
  • Enhanced communication skills through articulating ideas and engaging in discussions.
  • Lifelong learning by encouraging curiosity and exploration.
• Emphasizes evaluating, interpreting, and questioning ideas in texts.

Formulation of Assertions

• Assertions express opinions, interpretations, or stances on issues within texts.
• Formulation Steps:
  • Identify the main idea/argument.
  • Determine perspective using logical reasoning and textual evidence.
  • Ensure clarity, specificity, and debatability.
  • Keep assertions concise (ideally 1 sentence)

Assertion Creation Tips

• Be inquisitive by questioning the text's themes and arguments.
  • Example question is "What is the author trying to convey about society?"
• Employ evidence-based reasoning derived from careful text consideration.
  • Example: cite specific passages illustrating moral ambiguity in a character's choices.
• Assertions are declarative sentences claiming truth, and can be fact, convention, opinion, or preference based
• Good critical readers logically assess assertions, which convey ideas/feelings directly
• Assertions should honestly express feelings, opinions, and needs
• An assertion convinces critical readers to accept claims

Four Common Types of Assertion

• Statement of fact: Verifiable through direct experience, witness testimonies, or research results.
  • Example: Sampaguita roots are used for medicinal purposes
• Statement of opinion: Based on facts, but difficult to objectively verify.
  • Example: Sampaguita flowers' popularity is evident in places of worship.
• Statement of convention: Based on traditions, norms, historical precedent, laws, rules, usage, and custom.
  • Example: Sampaguita belongs to the genus Jasminum, family Oleaceae.
• Statement of preference: Based on personal choice, subjective, and not objectively provable.
  • Example: Sampaguitas are the most beautiful and fragrant flowers.

Assertion Writing Tips

• Be knowledgeable via thorough topic examination and research.
• Support assertions with strong foundations like research findings.
• Be clear and concise, presenting complete supporting details.

Forming an Assertion - Types of Assertion

• Basic assertion: Directly expresses feelings, beliefs, and opinions
  • Used in formal papers like theses and dissertations.
  • Example: Pre-colonial Philippines was an advanced civilization because of social structure, government, and an alphabet
• Emphatic assertion: Shows empathy and understanding of the author's emotions
  • Suitable for formal/informal papers and has two parts
    • Recognition of the situation/feelings of the characters.
    • Statement of the writer's stand.
    • Example: Before pre-Spanish colonization, Filipinos were literate, as shown in their writing called ‘baybayin.'
• I-Language assertion: Expresses writer's feelings and preferences focusing on the writer using "I"
  • Best for reviews/reflection papers
  • Three Parts
    • Accurate information from literary work, especially a topic the writer disagrees with
    • Writer's feelings toward the topic.
    • Preferences for recommendations.
      • Example: Ancient Filipinos were divided into three classes, the 'maharlika', 'timawa', and 'alipin', I feel proud of social progress but simultaneously saddened by social differentiation. Further research is needed.
• Factors to consider before formulating an assertion
  • Paper type: formal or informal
  • Literary work type: novel, poem, journal, play
• Authors must comprehensively read a literary work and note what they agree/disagree with to write assertions
  • Collecting evidence from other authors with the same assertions is beneficial.

Counterclaim (definition and forms)

• A counterclaim rebuts a previous claim
• It takes familiarity with the discussed topic to spot the writer's counterclaims.
• Counterclaims are usually presented straightforwardly in texts.
• Express unfavorable statements with hedges to maintain a courteous tone.
• Different forms of hedges include:
  • Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must, etc.
  • Frequency Adverbs: usually, generally, commonly
  • Probability Adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably

Claim Types and Development

• Claim: Position/side in an argument.
• Counterclaim: Argument against a claim.
• Rebuttal: Response to a counterclaim which intensifies the claim.
• Counterclaims challenge assertions with differing perspectives and logical reasoning.
• How to Develop a Counterclaim:
  • Identify opposing viewpoints and ensure they are logically sound/relevant.
  • Provide justification/evidence.
  • Counterclaim example: technology improves education access but widens the digital divide

Formulating Counterclaims

• Explore different perspectives, analyzing for selfishness or moral failings.
• Ground counterclaims by engaging with the text, finding alternative viewpoint evidence.
• Questions by Tiongson can help formulate a counterclaim
  • What points are there disagreements with the author?
  • What is the strongest argument?
  • What are the merits of a view?
  • What are the shortcomings of an argument?
  • Are there assumptions?
  • What lines support a counterclaim?

Tips for Making a Counterclaim

• Understand the point of the claim.
• Answer the claim point by point, avoid fallacies and religion unless it is involved.
• Politely express points/ideas.

Counterclaim Steps

• Acknowledge the opposing side's points as the topic sentence.
• Provide opposing evidence. Argue view/evidence against as illogical, incomplete, uninformed, less important

Counterclaim Placement

• In the introduction before thesis
• In a section/paragraph after introduction
• In a section/paragraph before the conclusion

Logical Fallacies

• Logical fallacies are reasoning errors that invalidate arguments; critical readers identify them.
• Faulty reasoning occurs where data is not supported.
• Examples
• Slippery Slope: Superficial and unacceptable consequences (computer shops ban example)
• Complex Question: Two points rolled into one for acceptance/rejection (cheating on exam example)
• Appeal to Force: Threat used to argue (evolution rejection example)
• Appeal to Pity: Pity used instead of reasoning (firing a person with a sick mother example)
• Appeal to Consequences: Emphasizing negative belief consequences to show falsity (colonialism being bad example)
• Bandwagon: Assuming validity because the majority thinks so (fair skin in Filipinas example)
• Attacking the Person: Refuting an argument by attacking character instead of ideas (Harvard education example)
• Appeal to Authority: Quoting unqualified expert (Bill Gate's laundry detergent recommendation example)
• False Dilemma: Presenting only two options despite more possibilities (company devotion vs quitting)
• Appeal to Ignorance: Concluding something is true because it's not proven false, vice versa(victim-killer connection example)
• Anonymous Authority: The authority in question isn not named or mentioned (eating peanuts example)
• Hasty Generalization: Insufficient sample (French people are mean example)

Textual Evidence

• Textual evidence consists of supporting direct quotes, paraphrases, or references.
• Evidence for textual evidence comes from supports gathered for arguments.
• Textual evidence is information gathered from the text that supports your assertion or counterclaim about the text.
• It uses information from an originating source or other texts to support an argument.
• Textual evidence is the details given by the author to support his/her claims
• Evidence sways readers/juries

Identifying Strong Textual Evidence

• Look for aligned ideas, examples, or statistics, ensure relevance and direct support
• Cite evidence for credibility
• Example supporting an assertion: "Students using online platforms showed a 20% retention rate increase compared to traditional classrooms"
• Example supporting a counterclaim: "low-income students lack access to online learning"
• Includes facts and statistics, expert opinions, and personal anecdotes

Giving Evidence

• Personal pronouns and excessive passive should have caution
• Avoid overstatement
• Give sufficient evidence
• Elaborate, picture evidence

Presenting Textual Evidence

• Restate an author’s or someone else’s idea in my own words (Paraphrasing)
• State the essential ideas in a shorter way (Summarizing)
• Mention a specific event or activity within the text (Referencing)
• State a specific part in the exact was it was written (Quoting)

Judgment Text

• State idea
• Determine evidence
• Quote/paraphrase text Express how a quote supports an idea

Conclusion

• Critical reading analyzes texts, formulates assertions, develops counterclaims, and validates arguments with textual evidence, which enhances comprehension
• Always question texts, seek multiple perspectives, and use credible sources to support reasoning

Academic Writing

• It is communication produced by students in educational settings
• The purpose is to inform and persuade, not to entertain.
• Presents information clearly and logically, aiming to convince the reader of their understanding of a particular topic.

Professional Writing

• Written communication made in professional settings (business, technical)
• The purpose is to inform and persuade (achieving specific business objectives), Components of Academic and Professional Writing -Refers to where the writing is taking place ( Context) -Refers to content (Message) -Refers to the channel used to send a message (visual,verbal,non-verbal etc.) -Refers to the reason for communication (Purpose) -Refers to the receiver (Audience/Reader) -Refers to the output of writing (Product) General Purpose: to inform or persuade with Specific Purpose as more reasons to inform or persuade

Features and Requirements in Composing Text

• A critical analysis to broaden understanding, as well as an evaluation (Book review or Critique)
• Parts:* -Title, author, thesis statement (introduction) -Objective, methods, major findings ( summary) -Methodology, theoretical soundness, and sufficiency, coherence (review or critique) -Suggestions for future directions, benefits, scholarly value (conclusion)
• Requirements:* -Careful readings, knowledge relation, and connect/suggest alternative methods

Literature Review

• Overview to analyze scholarly work (definition)
• Survey scholarly work to achieve purpose
• Parts of literature reviews include:
• Introduction, Body (relevant theories, relationships, strengths, weaknesses), Conclusion
• Requirements: literature search, evaluation, and the writing

Research Report

• Uses analysis and interpretations with previous research to help readers with knowledge.
• Parts:*
• Title page
• Abstract
• Introduction (research gaps/focus)
• Literature Review
• Methodology (data and experiments)
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References

Project Proposal Objectives

• A presentation of detailed plans to initiate and solve a project is intended (definition) and requires types of project proposals: -Solicited Internal -Unolicited Internal -Solicited External -Unolicited External
• Parts include:* -Institutional/proposal title of cover information
• Project title and theme to focus on
• Project Proponents for team names/members
• Cooperating/Funding/Agencies and their names/information
• Duration and Site and their Dates and Locations
• Rationale to problem solve
• Objectives must be specific
• Tangible tangible results for Expected Outputs
• Strategies, activities, and methods for Methodology
• Timetable for schedules -Budget and requirements Requirements: solve your writing through teamwork.

Position Paper Objective

• To present debatable stances with intensions (definition), as well as including: Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion Requirements: target your research

Features and Requirements

• Comprehensive information of data to display your background (definition) for professional reasons

Curriculum Vitae parts

• Basic personal, education, experience, references, and other key details
• Requirements*: well-detailed, long, and organized

Resume parts

• Brief details for interview Requirements: 1-page and error-free with only the details needed.

Application for Admission objectives

-A set of documents with accurate work and a statement, as well as your activities to fulfill for university Parts: activities,profile, transcript, statements

• Requirements:* accuracy

Business Writing

letters, memos emails, reports

• Parts consists of:*
• Heading (or not heading/personal)
• Inside addresses
• Salutation
• Body
• Closing
• Signature
• Modified and spacing variations apply*