The Changing Nature of Warfare

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Questions and Answers

What was a significant impact of the Crimean War on public perception of warfare?

It normalized the realities of war for the public.

It led to a stronger support for military authorities.

It brought the death and destruction of warfare closer to the British public. (correct)

It decreased public interest in military conflicts.

What role did W.H. Russell play during the Crimean War?

He was an artist who documented the war through paintings.

He was the leader of the British troops in the Crimea.

He was a politician who supported military strategies.

He was a war correspondent whose reports criticized military authorities. (correct)

How did the media coverage of the Crimean War affect military reform?

Media coverage had no significant impact on military reforms.

It resulted in an increased budget for war operations.

The coverage compelled leaders to improve military conditions and tactics. (correct)

Public indifference led to military reforms being ignored.

What was a critical assessment made by W.H. Russell regarding the military leaders?

He blamed Raglan for many issues faced by the troops. Signup and view all the answers

What misconception about public opinion during the Crimean War is highlighted?

The public was shocked by the realities of war and became critical of military conduct. Signup and view all the answers

What tactic replaced complex encirclement manoeuvres in the French army?

Shock tactics Signup and view all the answers

What date corresponds to 13 Vendemiaire in the Revolutionary Calendar?

October 5, 1795 Signup and view all the answers

Which military unit worked with Napoleon to repel the Royalists during the 13 Vendemiaire?

Cavalry Signup and view all the answers

How many French troops were lost during Napoleon's campaign in Italy?

6,000 Signup and view all the answers

What was the priority for the French Army of Italy regarding supplies?

Distribution to other military forces Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of Napoleon's initial victories in Italy?

Confidence and acclaim for Napoleon Signup and view all the answers

How many Allied troops were lost during the campaign in Italy?

25,000 Signup and view all the answers

What change occurred in infantry unit formation to counter enemy artillery?

Formation into smaller, deeper columns Signup and view all the answers

What significant change occurred in the French military organization during the transition to Total War?

Disbanding of regiments to form divisions Signup and view all the answers

Which committee was responsible for coordinating France's war efforts during this period?

Committee for Public Safety Signup and view all the answers

What role did Lazare Carnot play during this time?

Organizing the volunteer forces with regular military forces Signup and view all the answers

What industrial changes occurred in France to support the military?

Establishment of new arms factories Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor in France's ability to replace military losses compared to its enemies?

Large population available for recruitment Signup and view all the answers

How many campaigns was the French Army engaged in by 1793?

Ten separate campaigns Signup and view all the answers

What was the approximate size of the French army at its peak during this period?

Nearly a million men Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the French military and society is true during this time?

Public resources were fully mobilized for the war effort Signup and view all the answers

What nickname was given to Napoleon for his leadership style?

The Little Corporal Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main factors that contributed to Napoleon's popularity with his troops?

His ability to secure war fines for them Signup and view all the answers

What specific strategic goal did Napoleon prioritize in his military campaigns?

Rapid destruction of enemy forces Signup and view all the answers

Which major campaign did Napoleon lead between 1798-1799 that ultimately faced significant challenges?

The Egyptian Campaign Signup and view all the answers

What significant political change did Napoleon implement upon his return to France in 1799?

Challenged the Directory and became First Consul Signup and view all the answers

How did Napoleon's strategy differ from the maneuver strategies of the 18th century?

He emphasized sending large forces deep into enemy territory. Signup and view all the answers

What innovative military structure did Napoleon introduce to improve his army's effectiveness?

The Corps d'armee system Signup and view all the answers

What key feature characterized each Corps in Napoleon's military structure?

Three infantry divisions, a cavalry brigade, and artillery Signup and view all the answers

What was the main reason for the swift victory of Prussia in military conflicts during the 19th century?

Prussian military reforms Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant advancement in weaponry for the Prussian forces?

The use of the Dreyse 'needle' gun Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributed to Prussia's logistical advantage in warfare?

The establishment of local military organization as Kreise Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the changes instituted by Moltke in the Prussian military?

Increase in active service duration from two years to three years Signup and view all the answers

How did the Prussian infantry perform in comparison to the Austrian infantry?

They were better trained and used modern tactics Signup and view all the answers

What economic strategy did Prussia employ to strengthen its military position?

Forming an economic union with North German states Signup and view all the answers

What was a disadvantage of the Austrian military during conflicts with Prussia?

Their reliance on outdated military tactics Signup and view all the answers

Which military leader was NOT mentioned as a key figure in Prussia's military hierarchy?

Prince Eugen Signup and view all the answers

What factor contributed to the French army's slow mobilization at the start of the war?

The lack of a general staff Signup and view all the answers

Which weapon did the French invest in that was superior to the Prussian needle rifle?

Chassepot rifle Signup and view all the answers

What was the consequence of the French government's indecisive actions during the war?

They suffered significant losses at Sedan Signup and view all the answers

How did Prussian artillery impact the French forces during the conflict?

It caused significant casualties with minimal infantry support Signup and view all the answers

What major strategic error did the French army make before Prussia retaliated?

Launching an uncoordinated attack into Prussia Signup and view all the answers

What event marked the beginning of the second phase of the war for France?

The establishment of the Government of National Defence Signup and view all the answers

Which logistical issue hindered the French army before the 1870 war began?

Poor preparation and outdated weapons Signup and view all the answers

What happened to Napoleon III and his troops at Sedan?

They were encircled and surrendered to the Prussians Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

How to Structure Notes

Hypothesis: Outline the argument and explored themes
Main Body:
- Theme 1
- Theme 2
- Theme 3
Conclusion: Judgement

French Revolutionary Wars

A New Army
- Prior to 1792, armies supported the absolute authority of European monarchs
- The French Royal Army dissolved
- Many officers, aristocrats, fled the Revolution/the 'Terror'
- Some defected to Austrian and Prussian armies, fighting against the Revolution
- Republican leaders distrusted the old Royal Army, removing the Royal prefix, and replacing it with National Guard volunteers
- This ensured loyalty to the Revolution
- Politically motivated, younger officers, ideologically aligned with the Revolution (e.g., Napoleon) rose to prominence
- The Revolution declared willingness to aid those seeking liberty, making it an enemy of other monarchies
- War with Austria and Prussia soon followed.
- The French Army performed poorly at Valenciennes in April 1792, experiencing mass desertions and the lynching of their commander
- Only sheer numbers and Revolutionary zeal saved the Revolution.
- The Prussian Army was halted at the Battle of Valmy in September 1792.
- French artillery reforms (standardised, more mobile, more accurate, grouped for concentrated fire) played a critical role in victory
A Nation in Arms
- The French government implemented a policy of mass conscription, called the 'Levée en masse', in August 1793
- This policy aimed to place all French citizens into the army
- Young men were to fight, married men to forge arms, women to make tents, uniforms and support the army
- Public buildings were converted into barracks and arms factories, and horses were requisitioned
- The French Army swelled to almost a million men
- A shift toward "Total War" occurred – the economy and society mobilised to support the army
- The French government introduced price controls, requisitioned property and produce, and nationalised transport and industry
- Twenty new sword and bayonet factories, and twelve new gun factories were established
- Lazare Carnot coordinated the war effort for the Committee of Public Safety (CPS)
- The volunteer forces were merged with the regular forces, creating more experienced soldiers, trained quickly, resulting in a faster training process for new soldiers.
- 'Political Commissars' (forerunners) were appointed by the CPS, tasked with political indoctrination for the troops.
- Divisions replaced regiments to provide more flexibility
- France had a large population (around 30 million people)
Changes to Strategy
- The large French armies and lack of training resulted in tactical changes
- 'Shock Tactics' (charging enemy lines with bayonets) replaced large encirclement maneuvers
- Infantry was organized into 50-80-man columns, in 12 men depth; these presented smaller targets to enemy artillery
- Tactics like skirmishing and sniping were also employed (by 1795)
Napoleon
- By 1795, growing public frustration with the Revolution and the Thermidorian Reaction (challenges to the CPS with the execution of Robespierre; Royalists insurrections) led Napoleon to be appointed to defend the National Convention and the Tuileries Palace against the Royalists
- He used artillery ('whiff of grape shot') effectively in the defence of the Convention
- His success brought fame, patronage, and command of the French Army of Italy.
- The campaign in Italy was successful with lightning victories.
  - Victory against Piedmonts by April 1796
  - Losses were high for Allies, 25,000 Allied compared to 6000 French
  - Victories against Austrians at Lodi, Lonato, and Castiglione in 1796 to 1797
Innovation- The Corps
- Napoleon built on Carnot's divisional system with the introduction of 'Corps d'armee' (army corps)
- 3 infantry divisions, a cavalry brigade and 46 artillery guns
- The increased size provided tactical flexibility and independent operations
- Battle of Austerlitz (1805)
- Demonstrated Napoleon's mastery of strategic movement
Battle of Marengo (1800)
- French dominance over northern Italy was re-affirmed
- Battle of Hohenlinden (1800)
Towards Defeat- Iberian Peninsula
- War in the Iberian Peninsula (1808-1814) featured British forces and Spanish/Portuguese allies against French forces
- British, aided by Spanish/Portuguese allies, held off superior French numbers and later drove them out of Spain.
  - They later invaded France
- This costly conflict became known as the Spanish ulcer (a drain on French resources), contributing to Napoleonic downfall.
The Crimean War
- Advancements in technology
  - Breech-loaded rifles (Minie bullet and rifling) made rifles more accurate and increased rate of fire.
  - Improved artillery (e.g., the Krupp C/64 field gun) enhanced range and accuracy.
- Tactics
  - The era of cavalry charges ended, as they were no longer as effective against new weapons.
  - New tactical formations like the 'thin red line' were adopted.
The Civil War
- The American Civil War (1861-1865)
  - Use of railways was important for troop and resource movement.
  - The adoption of new weapons (Gatling gun, Spencer repeating rifle) changed warfare.
  - Tactics and strategies changed, with the development of new infantry tactics and the rise of defensive strategies
  - Bushwhacking, a form of guerilla warfare, was prevalent in rural areas
The Austro-Prussian War
- Prussia used reforms to achieve rapid mobilisation and a strong military and economy.
The Franco-Prussian War
- 1870-71
- New firearms like the Chassepot rifle and the Mitrailleuse had a significant impact on tactics.
- The Mitrailleuse was an early machine gun, capable of rapid fire.
Total War
- The increased scale of war during this period influenced artillery, which became much more important. Bombardment of cities became a frequent tactic causing significant damage.

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