Creation Theories: Science and Religion

Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old; the universe is about 13.8 billion years old.
Various religious cosmologies provide different narratives for the origin of the universe, starting from Genesis in the Bible.

Mormonism: Believes in pre-existing life, not created ex nihilo. Proposes a plan of salvation for human progression, allowing advancement like God.
Buddhism: Emphasizes karma and the interconnectedness of beings and the universe. Concept of creation is inconceivable and has no definite beginning or end.
Islam: Claims God created the universe and humanity, encouraging meditation on the cosmos.
Hinduism: Views creation as timeless, involving cycles of creation and destruction without a distinct beginning.

Steady State Theory: Proposes a continuously expanding universe that maintains constant density; theorists include Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann Bondi.
Big Bang Theory: Currently the most accepted theory; posits that universe expanded from a singularity approximately 14 billion years ago. Key concepts include inflation, red shift (moving away), and blue shift (moving towards).
Oscillating Universe: Suggests a perpetual cycle of big bang and big crunch, theorized by Richard Tolman.
Multiverse Theory: Suggests our universe is one of many, or "bubbles," theorized by Hugh Everett III.

Encounter Hypothesis: Suggests that a rogue star interacted with the sun about 5 billion years ago, influencing gas formation into planets. The outer planets formed from denser material and inner planets from lighter sun materials.
Nebular Hypothesis: Proposes that the solar system formed from a gas cloud that collapsed due to its gravity, resulting in the sun and planets approximately 4.5 billion years ago.
Protoplanet Hypothesis: Extends the nebular hypothesis, indicating planets formed from accumulated gas and dust in a collapsing interstellar cloud.

Earth consists of interrelated physical, chemical, and biological processes that form four main subsystems: geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Described as a protective blanket around the Earth composed of gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, and water vapor.
Composition of Air: 99% is oxygen and nitrogen; the remaining 1% includes argon, carbon dioxide, and helium.

Troposphere: Closest to the surface; where weather occurs and where planes operate safely.
Stratosphere: Contains ozone for UV protection; location of jet planes and radiosondes.
Mesosphere: Coldest layer where meteors burn up, causing shooting stars.
Thermosphere: Contains individual gas molecules; home to auroras and is the hottest layer.
Exosphere: Extends into space; where satellites orbit.

Encompasses all water on Earth, accounting for 75% of the planet's surface; saltwater makes up 97% while freshwater constitutes 3%.
Freshwater sources include glaciers, rivers, and lakes, with a significant portion trapped in ice.

Represents the solid part of Earth, consisting of rocks, minerals, and landforms, which provide essential nutrients for plants through the rock cycle.
Composed of distinct layers: crust (solid), mantle (solid), and the core, which includes inner and outer layers.