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Questions and Answers
What structures make up the external female genitalia?
What structures make up the external female genitalia?
Which layer of the uterus is responsible for the contractions during childbirth?
Which layer of the uterus is responsible for the contractions during childbirth?
What function does the endometrium serve in the female reproductive system?
What function does the endometrium serve in the female reproductive system?
Which of the following correctly describes the male external genitalia?
Which of the following correctly describes the male external genitalia?
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What is the primary role of the greater vestibular glands in the female anatomy?
What is the primary role of the greater vestibular glands in the female anatomy?
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What is the primary role of the epiglottis in the respiratory system?
What is the primary role of the epiglottis in the respiratory system?
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What occurs during inhalation in the respiratory system?
What occurs during inhalation in the respiratory system?
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Which part of the respiratory system is responsible for the actual gas exchange?
Which part of the respiratory system is responsible for the actual gas exchange?
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What is the primary function of cilia lining the trachea?
What is the primary function of cilia lining the trachea?
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How is hypoxia characterized in terms of tissue oxygen levels?
How is hypoxia characterized in terms of tissue oxygen levels?
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What role does angiotensin II play in the body?
What role does angiotensin II play in the body?
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Which of the following glands produces seminal fluid?
Which of the following glands produces seminal fluid?
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What distinguishes steroid hormones from water-soluble hormones in terms of filtering through the glomerular capillaries?
What distinguishes steroid hormones from water-soluble hormones in terms of filtering through the glomerular capillaries?
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What is the correct definition of 'prostate'?
What is the correct definition of 'prostate'?
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Which part of the male reproductive system connects the testes to the body trunk?
Which part of the male reproductive system connects the testes to the body trunk?
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Which structure is involved in cleansing the urethra of urine prior to ejaculation?
Which structure is involved in cleansing the urethra of urine prior to ejaculation?
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What is the function of the acrosome in sperm?
What is the function of the acrosome in sperm?
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Which component of the nephron is primarily responsible for urine production?
Which component of the nephron is primarily responsible for urine production?
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What is the function of the residual volume in the lungs?
What is the function of the residual volume in the lungs?
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Which part of the alimentary canal is responsible for the initial mechanical processing of food?
Which part of the alimentary canal is responsible for the initial mechanical processing of food?
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Which hormone stimulates red blood cell production?
Which hormone stimulates red blood cell production?
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What triggers the release of bile from the gall bladder?
What triggers the release of bile from the gall bladder?
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Where are the renin and EPO produced in the body?
Where are the renin and EPO produced in the body?
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What is the role of secretin in digestion?
What is the role of secretin in digestion?
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What is the primary action of the epiglottis during swallowing?
What is the primary action of the epiglottis during swallowing?
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What does the small intestine NOT do as part of its function?
What does the small intestine NOT do as part of its function?
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What process moves food bolus down the esophagus?
What process moves food bolus down the esophagus?
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Which structure within the kidneys is responsible for filtration?
Which structure within the kidneys is responsible for filtration?
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What is the main function of the large intestine?
What is the main function of the large intestine?
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What does aldosterone primarily regulate?
What does aldosterone primarily regulate?
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What type of muscle composes the urinary bladder?
What type of muscle composes the urinary bladder?
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Which vitamin’s absorption is aided by gastric intrinsic factor?
Which vitamin’s absorption is aided by gastric intrinsic factor?
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Study Notes
LECTURE EXAM 4
- Exam is on the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - PARTS
- Nose: The only visible part; nares are the entrance to the nasal cavity.
- Pharynx: Nasopharynx (superior, behind nose), Oropharynx (middle, behind mouth), Laryngopharynx (inferior, attached to larynx).
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - PARTS
- Larynx: Routes food and air into the proper channels, plays a role in speech.
- Epiglottis: Protects the larynx opening during swallowing and prevents food from entering the larynx's vestibule.
- Vocal folds (true vocal cords): Part of the larynx.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - PARTS
- Trachea: Lined with cilia that move mucus upward expelling dust and debris away from the lungs.
- Bronchi: Formed by the division of the trachea; primary bronchi supply one lung each (right and left). Continue to divide into smaller bronchi and bronchioles.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - PARTS
- Lungs: Each lung is contained by a pleural cavity, divided into lobes by deep fissures.
- Alveoli: The actual sites of gas exchange within the lungs.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - FUNCTION
- Normal air flow: Nares > nasopharynx > larynx > trachea > primary bronchi > bronchioles > alveoli.
- Pulmonary ventilation: The movement of air into and out of the lungs.
- Hypoxia: A condition of low tissue oxygen levels.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - FUNCTION
- Inhalation: Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, increasing lung volume. Air moves into the lungs due to lower gas pressure inside the lungs than outside.
- Exhalation: Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. Lung volume decreases, and air moves out due to higher gas pressure in the lungs compared to outside.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES
- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): Amount of air that can be inhaled beyond a normal breath.
- Tidal volume (TV): Normal quiet breathing; approximately 500 ml of air.
- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): Amount of air that can be exhaled forcibly after a normal breath.
- Residual volume (RV): Air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation; does not participate in gas exchange and keeps alveoli inflated.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Two major divisions: Alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs
ALIMENTARY CANAL - MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY)
- First site of mechanical processing of food: Mastication (chewing), teeth.
- Teeth: Enamel covers dentin.
- Saliva: Contains enzymes to begin carbohydrate breakdown, moistens food, and compacts the bolus; it is not acidic.
ALIMENTARY CANAL PARTS
- Oropharynx: Part of the pharynx.
- Laryngopharynx: Part of the pharynx.
- Epiglottis: Protects the airway.
- Esophagus: Enlarges and connects to stomach at the cardiac sphincter. Food is propelled by peristalsis.
ALIMENTARY CANAL PARTS - STOMACH
- Stomach: A digestive and endocrine organ.
- Anatomical features: Lesser/Greater curvature, distal portion is the pylorus. Internal folds are rugae.
- Cellular/chemical features: Parietal cells produce stomach acid that is regulated by antacid drugs; gastric intrinsic factor for Vitamin B12 absorption.
ALIMENTARY CANAL
- Small intestine: Three divisions – duodenum (proximal), jejunum (middle), ileum (distal).
- Large intestine: Dehydrates indigestible materials. Cecum and appendix follow junction of small and large intestines. Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid).
ALIMENTARY CANAL
- Rectum: Part of the large intestine.
- Anus: Part of the large intestine.
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
- Salivary glands: Parotid, sublingual, submandibular glands. Salivation is controlled by food entering the mouth, chewing, and emotional stimuli (e.g., thinking of favorite foods).
- Pancreas: Retroperitoneal, produces enzymes digesting starches, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids; secretes these into the duodenum.
ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
- Liver: Largest gland in the body, four lobes (right, left, caudate, quadrate).
- Bile: Produced by the liver, travels through common hepatic duct then bile duct to the duodenum.
- Hepatic portal circulation: Collects absorbed nutrients for metabolic processing in the liver.
- Gall bladder: Bile storage when digestion is not occurring. When needed, bile travels through the cystic duct then common bile duct to the duodenum.
DIGESTION
- Release of water, acids, enzymes, and buffers by the digestive epithelium.
- Breakdown of food into nutrient molecules for the body's use.
DIGESTION – "START TO FINISH"
- Food intake into oral cavity: teeth and tongue break food up; saliva moistens and binds food into a bolus; salivary amylase begins starch digestion; bolus passes through the pharynx and esophagus to stomach.
- Stomach: Stomach acid activates pepsin to begin the digestion of proteins and moves the food to the small intestine as chyme.
- Small intestine: Pancreatic juice and bile are added to the chyme; this begins fat digestion. Small intestine enzymes are secreted, and hormones (Secretin and CCK) influence activity.
- Large intestine: Feces is formed and eliminated from the body.
URINARY SYSTEM - ORGANS
- Kidneys: Dispose of urine.
- Ureters: Slender tubes running behind peritoneum.
- Urinary bladder: Smooth, collapsible muscular sac.
- Urethra: Carries urine from bladder to outside of body; differs in function between males and females.
KIDNEYS
- Functions: Dispose of waste products in urine, regulate blood pressure, stimulate red blood cell production, convert Vitamin D, maintain water and electrolyte balance, and maintain proper blood pH.
KIDNEYS
- Nephrons: Functional units of the kidneys, comprised of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule.
KIDNEYS
- Renal corpuscle: Consists of two parts – glomerulus and Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is responsible for filtration. The filtration rate is controlled via renal autoregulation, hormonal regulation, and neural regulation.
KIDNEYS
- Renal tubule: Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT); active transport takes place here. Nephron loop (Loop of Henle); aids in passive movement of water out of the tubule. Distal convoluted tubule.
URETER
- Slender tubes connecting kidneys to bladder. Retroperitoneal (behind peritoneum).
URINARY BLADDER
- A smooth, collapsible muscular sac. Contains transitional epithelium. Micturition is the process of voiding the bladder.
URETHRA
- Thin-walled tube transporting urine from the bladder to outside the body.
- Function differs; females only carry urine; males carry urine and sperm.
URINARY SYSTEM - HORMONES
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Causes collecting ducts to become more permeable to water. Prevents water loss and increases reabsorption.
- Aldosterone: Released by adrenal glands, regulates sodium and potassium balance. Water follows sodium reabsorption.
URINARY SYSTEM - HORMONES
- Lipid-soluble (steroid) hormones: Have a long half-life, travel in the plasma on large transport proteins. The large transport proteins cannot pass through the filtration membrane, so their action duration is prolonged (half-life is longer)
URINARY SYSTEM - ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
- Renin-Angiotensin mechanism: Most important trigger for aldosterone release; low blood pressure activates the release of renin by the kidneys activating hormones leading to increased blood pressure and blood volume.
- Diuretics: Promote dehydration
URINE PRODUCTION > ELIMINATION
- Nephrons
- Collecting ducts
- Minor calyx
- Major calyx
- Ureters
- Urethra
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- Gonads: Primary sex organs. Testes (male), ovaries (female).
- Gametes: Sex cells. Sperm (male), ova (female).
MALE
- Testes: Connected to the trunk via spermatic cord; produces sperm.
- Duct system: Transports sperm and includes the epididymis and ductus deferens.
- Urethra: A transport system for sperm as well as urine.
- Accessory glands: Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, produce fluid to activate sperm and cleanses the urethra prior to ejection.
- Semen: Milky white mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions.
- Sperm: Head with nucleus containing DNA; acrosome with enzyme to help penetrate the egg. Filaments.
- External genitalia: Scrotum and penis (shaft, glans penis, prepuce).
FEMALE
- Ovaries: Follicles contain immature eggs; ovulation happens when eggs mature and follicles rupture; ovaries are suspended in the pelvis by suspensory and broad ligaments.
- Duct system Uterine tubes, uterus (endometrium-inner layer, myometrium-middle layer, perimetrium-outermost layer), vagina.
- External genitalia Mons pubis, labia, clitoris, urethra opening, vaginal opening, greater vestibular glands.
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