CPU components and processing types

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Questions and Answers

The CPU is composed of three primary components: the ALU, the CU, and the ______.

Register

The ______ is responsible for controlling the order in which instructions are executed by the CPU.

Control Unit

______ processing involves executing one instruction at a time using a single core.

Serial

In contrast to serial processing, ______ processing utilizes multiple microprocessors to run program instructions simultaneously, reducing overall execution time.

<p>parallel</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ is a technique where a single processor duplicates its registers to allow two sets of instructions to run concurrently, improving context switching.

<p>Hyperthreading</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ involves having multiple CPUs, referred to as cores, on a single CPU chip, allowing for more processes to occur simultaneously.

<p>Multiprocessing</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cache memory is made from ______ chips, which offer faster access speeds compared to DRAM.

<p>SRAM</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ is the main memory that stores currently used programs and data, and it is linked directly to the CPU.

<p>RAM</p> Signup and view all the answers

The time it takes for a component to respond to a request is referred to as ______, which can impact overall processing speed.

<p>latency</p> Signup and view all the answers

Level 1 (L1) cache is located on-chip and holds cache lines retrieved from ______ cache.

<p>L2</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ______ provides connections between various circuits, ensures component communication, and supplies power to the system.

<p>Motherboard</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ is the practice of making components run at faster speeds than their specified design, often achieved by modifying the clock multiplication factor.

<p>Overclocking</p> Signup and view all the answers

The theoretical speed of a bus is known as ______, while the actual speed of data transfer, considering latency, is known as throughput.

<p>speed</p> Signup and view all the answers

______ slots are commonly used to connect graphic cards to the motherboard, featuring a number of slots that depends on the motherboard type.

<p>PCI Express</p> Signup and view all the answers

______, is a computer bus interface used to connect mass storage devices, such as hard drives, to a computer motherboard.

<p>SATA</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

CPU

The central processing unit, made of the ALU, CU, and Register, crucial for computer processing.

Control Unit (CU)

Controls the execution of each instruction in the CPU.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Performs arithmetic and logical operations in the CPU. Can only add, subtraction requires a negative number.

Register

Stores current instructions and data for immediate use by the CPU.

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Serial Processing

Processes one instruction at a time using a single core, breaking problems into sequential steps.

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Parallel Processing

Runs program instructions simultaneously on multiple microprocessors, reducing processing time.

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Level 1 (L1) Cache

A memory cache small in size located on the CPU, operating at the same speed as the CPU's internal speed.

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Latency

The time it takes for a component to respond; lower latency means faster processing.

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Virtual Memory

Extends RAM by using the hard disk to swap pages when RAM is full, allowing more addresses to be used.

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Translator

Software that converts code into another form, such as source code to machine code.

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High-Level Languages

Programming languages with high-level abstractions, closer to human language (e.g., Python, Java).

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Machine Cycle

Fetch, decode, execute, and store; the four fundamental stages the CPU uses to process instructions.

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Overclocking

Increasing a component's clock frequency beyond its specified rating.

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RAM

The main memory that stores currently used programs and data which is linked to it.

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Kernel

The core of the OS, found in the RAM. Responsible for input/output requests from software; it also translates it into instructions for the CPU.

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Study Notes

  • CPU Components
  • The CPU comprises the ALU, CU, and Register.
  • The Control Unit (CU) manages the execution of each instruction.
  • The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs addition, logical comparisons (T/F), and calculations; subtraction is achieved by adding a negative number.
  • The Register stores current instructions and data.
  • Processing Types
  • Serial Processing executes one instruction at a time using a single core, breaking down problems into sequentially executed instructions.
  • Parallel Processing runs program instructions concurrently on multiple microprocessors, reducing processing time by running parts of instructions on different processors.
  • Hyperthreading duplicates registers on a single processor chip, preloading next instructions into a second register set, enabling two instruction sets to run simultaneously, each set constitutes a thread, facilitates rapid context switching, emulating two logical CPUs within one physical CPU with two register sets.
  • Multiprocessing involves multiple CPUs, referred to as cores, on a single CPU chip, duplicating the entire core, effectiveness relies on motherboard and OS support.
  • Processor Cache
  • Processor speed exceeds RAM speed.
  • Cache memory consists of SRAM chips known for faster access speeds compared to DRAM, stores prefetched instructions and data from RAM, anticipating CPU needs.
  • Level 1 (L1) cache is small, operates at CPU's internal speed, and is located directly on the CPU.
  • Level 2 (L2) cache is larger but has slower access, operating at half CPU's internal speed, positioned between the CPU and RAM.
  • Level 3 (L3) cache is found on motherboards, farther from CPU than RAM, larger than L1 and L2 but slower.
  • The CPU searches L1 first, then L2, then L3, and finally RAM for information, L3's function varies based on CPU design.
  • Cache stores data to expedite future requests, resulting in a cache hit if found, or a cache miss if not.
  • RAM (Random Access Memory)
  • Functions as the main memory on chips attached to motherboard slots, stores currently used programs and linked data, DDR (Double Data Rate) is commonly utilized.
  • DRAM stands for dynamic RAM, used for memory chips.
  • SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) synchronizes RAM chips with the CPU, eliminating wait times during refresh cycles, accelerating instruction delivery to the CPU.
  • DDR (double data rate) transfers data twice as fast per clock pulse.
  • Higher RAM speed results quicker instruction delivery to the cache.
  • Latency
  • Latency refers to a component's response time, all RAM exhibits latency, affecting processor speed, reduces wasted clock ticks.
  • Memory Types
  • L0: registers hold words from cache.
  • L1: on-chip L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved from L2 cache.
  • L2: off-chip L2 cache holds cache lines retrieved from memory.
  • L3: main memory (DRAM) holds disk blocks from local disks.
  • L4: local secondary storage holds files from remote network servers.
  • L5: remote secondary storage, distributed file systems and Web servers.
  • Storage devices range from smaller, faster, and costlier (per byte) at the top of the list to larger, slower, and cheaper (per byte) as you go down the list.
  • Motherboard
  • Provides connections for other circuits.
  • Facilitates communication between components.
  • Supplies power.
  • System Clock
  • Overclocking boosts component speeds beyond design specifications, done one of two ways.
  • Per component: the CPU operates faster than the system clock by altering the clock multiplication factor.
  • The whole system: increasing the system clock affects all components, multiplying by a factor.
  • Clocking multiplication is achieved by increasing the system clock, raising a component's frequency by increasing the clock multiplier.
  • Cooling
  • Crucial when overclocking, methods include: fans, liquid cooling, heat sinks.
  • Speed vs Throughput
  • Speed is a measurement of bandwidth.
  • Bandwidth is the theoretical speed of a bus measured in Megabits per second (Mbps).
  • Throughput is the actual data speed and is reduced due to latency.
  • FSB (Front Side Bus)
  • A parallel bus connects components to the motherboard, commonly links the CPU and RAM.
  • Data bus transfers actual instructions or data.
  • Address bus transfers the physical address of data.
  • Control buses carry commands.
  • External Buses
  • PCI Express slots connect graphic cards, number varies with motherboard type, operate with independent clocks.
    • SATA connects mass storage devices like hard drives to the motherboard.
  • SATA I speed is 1.5GHz with 150MB/s throughput.
  • SATA II speed is 3GHz with 300MB/s throughput.
  • SATA III speed is 3GHz with 600MB/s throughput.
    • USB connects peripherals.
  • USB 1.0/Low-Speed data transfer rate is 1.5 Mbps
  • USB 1.1/Full-Speed data transfer rate is 12 Mbps.
  • USB 2.0/Full-Speed-Speed data transfer rate is 480 Mbps.
  • USB 3.0/SuperSpeed data transfer rate is 5Gbps.
  • USB 3.1/SuperSpeed data transfer rate is 10Gbps.
  • NVMe connects SSDs via SATA, and an M.2 Format is for high-speed, low-power devices in small spaces.
  • Secondary Storage
    • Cloud storage is remote storage on an external server accessible from various devices.
  • Size corresponds to storage amount, determining cost.
  • Speed determines how fast a computer accesses a service provider's server online.
  • Cost, depends on cloud storage volume paid monthly or annually.
  • Caching
  • Disk Cache enhances the read/write speed of a hard disk, potentially stored in general RAM.
  • Browser Cache stores website copies accessed locally, holding downloaded web files.
  • Web Cache stores recently accessed webpages on a server in a network, storing most recently downloaded pages.
  • Web pages are stored on the proxy server's cache, with access granted from user's browser cache, providing information under certain conditions.
  • System Software: Boot Process
  • During computer startup, hardware devices pass checks before initializing, then undergo a boot sequence.
  • The bootloader performs boot sequence and OS loading.
  • BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
  • Stored on a ROM chip as nonvolatile memory, loads the OS.
  • The Power-On-Self-Test checks hardware and obtains an inventory from the Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor.
  • Hardware is tested and the Master Boot Record is located, then the OS kernel is loaded and executed.
  • Kernal
  • Found in RAM, the core of the OS manages input/output requests from software and translates them for the CPU.
  • Handles memory and peripherals like keyboards and monitors.
  • CMOS
  • Volatile memory stores hardware and user settings, including current date and time, accessed by the BIOS during bootup.
  • UEFI (Unified Extended Firmware Interface)
  • A modern, efficient startup system, requires compatible hardware.
  • Boots from drives 2.2TB or larger.
  • Operates in 32-bit or 64-bit mode.
  • Has more address space for faster booting, user-friendly with graphics and cursor support.
  • Interrupts
  • Signals sent to the CPU from hardware or software, indicating CPU resource needs.
  • Interrupt Types
  • Software Interrupts are generated by programs.
  • An example is dividing by zero or requiring an I/O, also occur when timers indicate allocated CPU cycles completion.
  • Hardware Interrupts are triggered by device signals like keyboard presses or printer errors.
  • When interrupted, the CPU stops current tasks, executes the interrupt handler and addresses needs based on priority.
  • IRQ (Interrupt Request Number
  • Unique to each device, used by the CPU for interrupt identification.
  • IO Range
  • Buffer/temporary RAM storage speeds up slow I/O devices.
  • Processing Techniques
  • Optimize computer system efficiency using multitasking and multithreading.
  • Multitasking
  • Makes the OS appear to run several programs at once.
  • The system can suspend non-processing jobs.
  • Requires OS process scheduling.
  • Multithreading
  • Runs multiple program threads simultaneously
  • Allows programs to appear to execute 2 threads.
  • Achieved by having two sets of registers on the CPU.
  • Multithreading occurs when a program runs more than one task at the same time.
  • Virtual Memory
  • Extends RAM by swapping pages between it and the hard disk.
  • Used to reduce the amount of large files and programs slowing the computer down.
  • Translators
  • Software programming tools, convert code into another type.
  • High-Level Languages
  • Abstracted, closer to human languages.
  • Python, Delphi, Java, are some examples.
  • Low-Level Languages
  • Closeness to machine language.
  • Binary code consists of 1s and 0s.
  • Assembly code correlates to single machine language instructions.
  • IDEs (Integrated Development Environment)
  • Editing features such as code completion and error checking are included.
  • Interpreters
  • Reads and executes program lines, converts to machine code, discards after execution, reinterprets each time.
  • Compilers
  • Languages transformed before usage.
  • Machine Code Generation
  • Compiles source code into machine code, generates an object code file.
  • Intermediate Representations
  • Language is compiled to bytecode that can be executed without rereading the file.
  • Machine Cycle
    • CPU processes basic instructions in four steps:
  • FETCH a program instruction from memory (RAM).
  • DECODE the instruction using CPU's instruction set.
  • EXECUTE instructions, using data if needed.
  • STORE result in main memory or send to the output device.
  • The CPU stores current instructions.
  • The CU sends read/write signals to memory and fetches data addresses.
  • The accumulator in the ALU is a register that stores the results of each execution.

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