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Acids vs Bases

• Acids have a pH less than 7 and release hydrogen ions in water
• Bases have a pH greater than 7 and accept hydrogens
• Litmus paper turns red in acids and blue in bases
• Acids taste sour, while bases taste bitter
• Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas; concentrated bases can be corrosive
• The pH scale measures acidity or alkalinity, with lower values being more acidic and higher values being more basic

Catabolic vs Anabolic Reactions

• Catabolic reactions break down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.
• Anabolic reactions build larger molecules from smaller ones, consuming energy.
• Catabolic reactions are exergonic, releasing energy
• Anabolic reactions are endergonic, requiring energy
• Catabolic reactions involve hydrolysis
• Anabolic reactions involve dehydration synthesis
• Digestion is an example of catabolic reactions
• Protein synthesis is an example of anabolic reactions
• Catabolic reactions are crucial for energy production
• Anabolic reactions are essential for growth and repair

Cell Membrane Properties

• The cell membrane is a semipermeable lipid bilayer
• It regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell
• It is composed of phospholipids, proteins, and cholesterol
• It maintains cell shape and protects organelles
• It facilitates cell communication and signaling
• It helps maintain homeostasis by regulating the internal environment

Components of the Cell Theory

• All living organisms are composed of cells
• Cells are the basic unit of life
• All cells come from pre-existing cells
• Schwann and Schleiden proposed the cell theory in the 19th century
• Virchow later added the idea of cell division to the cell theory
• Advanced technology, like microscopes, helped in developing the cell theory
• The cell theory revolutionized how scientists viewed life and paved the way for modern cell biology

Control vs Experimental Groups

• Control groups are exposed to the same conditions as experimental groups
• The exception is the independent variable, which is not tested on control groups
• The experimental group is subjected to independent variable being tested
• Control groups provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental group
• Random assignment helps reduce bias in group selection
• Blinding techniques ensure objectivity in data collection

Discovery of Penicillin

• Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928
• Penicillin is a powerful antibiotic produced by certain molds
• Alexander Fleming noticed Penicillium's potential when he observed its ability to kill bacteria in a petri dish
• Penicillin revolutionized treating bacterial infections and saved countless lives
• Fleming's discovery paved the way for mass production of antibiotics and new medical treatments

Enzyme Components

• Enzyme components include the apoenzyme, which is the protein part
• Enzyme components include the cofactor or coenzyme, which can be organic molecules or inorganic ions
• Prosthetic groups are tightly bound cofactors that are essential for enzyme function
• Metal ions like zinc, magnesium, and iron can serve as cofactors for enzymes
• Holoenzyme refers to the active enzyme formed when the apoenzyme combines with its cofactor or coenzyme
• Enzymes can be denatured if their components are disrupted, leading to loss of function

Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Differences

• Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer retaining the crystal violet stain
• Gram-positive bacteria appear purple under microscopy
• Gram-negative bacteria has a thinner layer and appear pink
• Gram-positive are generally more susceptible to antibiotics targeting the cell wall due to their thicker peptidoglycan layer
• Gram-negative have an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides that can trigger a stronger immune response
• Gram-positive produce a simpler cell wall structure without an outer membrane
• Gram-negative are more resistant to certain antibiotics and disinfectants due to their complex outer membrane

Importance of Sample Size

• Sample size is crucial for reliable results
• Sample size affects statistical power, precision, and generalizability in research
• A larger sample size increases the likelihood of detecting true effects
• Small sample sizes may lead to misleading or inconclusive results
• Sample size determination should consider variability and effect size
• Statistical analyses are more robust with larger sample sizes

Molecules of Life

• Molecules of life are essential organic compounds found in living organisms
• These include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Carbohydrates provide energy and structural support
• Lipids are important for storing energy and forming cell membranes
• Proteins play crucial roles in enzymes, structure, and signaling
• Nucleic acids carry genetic information and are essential for protein synthesis

Organic vs Inorganic

• Organic compounds contain carbon and are typically derived from living organisms
• In contrast, inorganic compounds lack carbon and are often minerals or salts
• Organic molecules usually exhibit covalent bonding
• Inorganic molecules can have various types of bonds
• Organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Inorganic compounds include water, salts, and metals
• Organic compounds are more complex and have a wider range of functions in living organisms compared to inorganic compounds
• Study of organic vs. inorganic compounds is crucial in understanding the chemistry of life and the environment

Parts of an Experiment

• Key parts of an experiment include the hypothesis, variables, control group, experimental group, data collection methods, and conclusions
• The hypothesis is a testable prediction
• Variables are factors that can be changed
• The control group serves as a baseline for comparison
• The experimental group receives the treatment

Peer Review Process

• Peer review process involves experts in the field evaluating the quality and validity of research articles before publication.
• Peer review helps maintain research quality and integrity in academic publications
• Peer review ensures that research articles meet specific standards for publication
• Peer review provides feedback to authors for improving their research
• Peer review usually involves anonymous reviewers to maintain objectivity

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Eukaryotic cells have a defined nucleus and organelles enclosed within membranes
• Prokaryotic cells are typically smaller and simpler in structure compared to eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists
• Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis for cell division
• Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually through binary fission
• Eukaryotic cells exhibit more complex metabolic processes and can be multicellular
• Prokaryotic cells are mostly unicellular

Sources of Macronutrients

• Macronutrients are essential nutrients that the body requires in large amounts for energy and growth
• They include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
• Carbohydrates are found in foods like bread, pasta, and fruits
• Proteins can be sourced from meat, dairy products, and legumes
• Fats are commonly found in oils, nuts, and avocados
• Balancing macronutrient intake is crucial for maintaining a healthy diet

Synthesized Amino Acids

• Synthesized amino acids are artificially created versions of naturally occurring amino acids, typically produced through chemical processes.
• Key methods for synthesizing amino acids include solid-phase peptide synthesis and liquid-phase peptide synthesis
• Synthesized amino acids are used in research, drug development, and food production.
• These artificial amino acids can have modified structures that provide unique properties or functions
• Synthesized amino acids must be carefully designed to mimic the properties of their natural counterparts

The Steps of Science

• The Steps of Science provide a systematic approach to conducting research
• This includes making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions
• Observations are key facts gathered through the senses
• Hypotheses are testable explanations for observations
• Experiments test the validity of hypotheses
• Data analysis involves organizing and interpreting results

Water- or Fat-Soluble Vitamins

• Vitamins are classified as water-soluble or fat-soluble based on their solubility in water or fat
• Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored in the body
• Water-soluble vitamins include B-complex vitamins and vitamin C
• Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
• Excess water-soluble vitamins are usually excreted in the urine, while excess fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body.
• A balanced diet with a variety of foods is important to ensure adequate intake of both water- and fat-soluble vitamins.

Key Terms

• Acid: A chemical substance with a pH below 7 that releases hydrogen ions in water

• Acids can be classified as strong or weak based on their ability to dissociate into ions in water

• Some common examples of acids include lemon juice, vinegar, and battery acid

• Acids can react with metals to produce hydrogen gas

• Acids can also be found in the stomach, where they aid in the digestion process

• Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur

• Activation energy is required because it helps overcome the energy barrier between the reactants and the transition state

• Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules, allowing them to overcome the activation energy more easily

• Catalysts lower the activation energy by providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower energy barrier

• The activation energy can be influenced by factors such as concentration, surface area, and the presence of a catalyst

• Active Transport: A biological process that moves molecules across cell membranes against a concentration gradient, requiring energy, usually in the form of ATP

• Active transport involves carrier proteins that facilitate movement of ions or molecules

• Two types of active transport are primary (direct use of ATP) and secondary (uses electrochemical gradient)

• Examples include sodium-potassium pump, proton pump, and cotransport

• It is key for maintaining cell potential and homeostasis in cells

• Adhesion: The property of different substances to adhere or stick together, usually due to intermolecular forces

• Adhesion plays important roles in various biological processes, such as cell adhesion and the transport of water and nutrients in plants

• Capillary action is an example of adhesion, where water molecules adhere to the walls of a narrow tube and are pulled upward against gravity

• Adhesion is crucial for wound healing, as it helps cells stick together and form new tissues

• Geckos are known for their ability to climb walls and ceilings due to their specialized toe pads that exhibit strong adhesion to surfaces

• Anabolic: Anabolic processes in living organisms involve building complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input for growth, repair, and maintenance of cells and tissues

• Protein synthesis is a key anabolic process responsible for creating proteins essential for cellular structure and function

• Anabolic reactions are endergonic, meaning they require energy input to proceed

• These processes are crucial for growth and development, as well as the repair of tissues and maintenance of body structures

• Anabolic activities are often associated with activities such as muscle building and tissue repair in organisms

• Anecdotal Evidence: Personal observations or experiences that are not based on systematic data collection or scientific research

• It is subjective and can be influenced by bias or individual perspectives

• Although anecdotal evidence can be compelling, it is generally considered weaker compared to empirical evidence

• It is often used to generate hypotheses or as a starting point for further scientific investigation

• Researchers must be cautious when relying on anecdotal evidence due to its limited reliability and potential for inaccuracies

• Atom: The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels

• Atoms are electrically neutral because they have equal numbers of protons and electrons

• The nucleus is very dense, containing most of the atom's mass, while the electrons occupy much larger regions of space

• Elements are defined by the number of protons present in their atoms

• Electrons occupy distinct energy levels or orbitals around the nucleus, with each level capable of holding a specific number of electrons

• Atomic Mass: Refers to the average mass of the atoms in a sample of an element, taking into account the abundance of each isotope

• The atomic mass unit (amu) is used to express atomic mass

• Atomic mass is found on the periodic table as the decimal number below the element's symbol

• Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic masses

• The atomic mass of an element is crucial for calculating molar mass and stoichiometric calculations

• Atomic Number: Refers to the total number of protons in an atom's nucleus

• Atomic number determines the element and its chemical properties

• All atoms of the same element have the same atomic number

• Atomic number is uniquely associated with each element on the periodic table

• The atomic number can be found above or below the element's symbol in the periodic table

• Base: A substance that can accept or react with hydrogen ions (protons)

• Bases have a pH value greater than 7 on the pH scale

• Examples of bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and ammonia (NH3)

• Bases are often used in the laboratory to neutralize acids

• The chemical formula of a base usually contains hydroxide ions (OH-)

• Biology: Scientific exploration involving the study of life and organisms, inclusive of their physical: structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, developments and evolutionary relationships.

• Lays the foundation for understanding the complex nature of life

• Emphasizes on cellular structure and functions, genetics and evolution

• Incorporates the study of ecosystems, behavior, and biodiversity

• Includes subfields such as microbiology, botany and zoology

• Bulk Transport: Refers to the movement of large amounts of materials across the cell membrane

• Materials are often transported in bulk to ensure efficient distribution throughout the organism

• Examples of bulk transport include phagocytosis and pinocytosis

• Bulk transport is an active process that requires energy in the form of ATP

• In plants, bulk transport of water and nutrients occurs through structures like xylem vessels

• Carbohydrates: Organic Molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms

• Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source

• Carbohydrates are found in foods like bread, rice, and fruits

• Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units they contain

• Glucose, fructose, and galactose are examples of monosaccharides

• Lactose, sucrose, and maltose are examples of disaccharides

• Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides

• Catabolic: Processes involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler substances, releasing energy in the process

• Catabolism includes processes like digestion, cellular respiration, and fermentation

• Enzymes play a crucial role in catalyzing catabolic reactions

• ATP is often produced during catabolic reactions, providing energy for cellular activities

• Catabolic pathways help organisms obtain energy by breaking down nutrients

• Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier encircling cells, regulating molecular traffic to maintain a stable internal environment and supporting cellular structure

• It is composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with proteins

• It is involved in processes like endocytosis, exocytosis, and signal transduction

• Proteins embedded in the membrane fulfill functions like transport and receptor signaling

• Membrane fluidity is influenced by lipid composition and temperature

• Cell Theory: A fundamental concept in biology that states all living organisms are composed of cells: Basic unit of structure and function in living organisms, and all: Cells arise from pre-existing cells

• Cells are the smallest unit of life and are capable of carrying out essential functions

• The discovery of cells and the development of cell theory is credited to scientists Robert Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, and Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

• The cell theory was proposed in the mid-19th century and revolutionized the understanding of life and biology as a whole

• The cell theory serves as the foundation for many branches of biology, including genetics, microbiology, and cell biology

• Cell Wall: A rigid outer layer found in plants, fungi, and some prokaryotes, providing support and protection for the cell

• The cell wall is made up of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in prokaryotes

• The cell wall is not present in animal cells

• Cell walls allow plants to stand upright and resist mechanical stress

• The cell wall also helps in preventing the entry of pathogens and provides shape to the cell

• Chloroplast: Double membrane-bound organelles found in plants and algae that contain chlorophyll, responsible for photosynthesis

• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis, where sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy

• The two main stages of photosynthesis, light-dependent and light-independent reactions, occur in separate regions of the chloroplast

• Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing them to synthesize their own proteins

• Chlorophyll, which gives plants their green color, is located in the thylakoid membranes within the chloroplast

• Coenzymes: Are organic molecules that are required for the proper functioning of enzymes, participating in enzyme-catalyzed reactions to transfer chemical groups between molecules.

• Coenzymes act as cofactors, which means they bind to the enzyme and help it carry out its function

• They can be derived from vitamins or other organic molecules and are often modified during the Reaction

• Coenzymes are often involved in energy transfer processes, such as ATP synthesis

• Some coenzymes function as carriers of electrons or other chemical groups in metabolic pathways

• Cofactors: Are Molecules required for the proper functioning of enzymes, helping them catalyze certain reactions effectively

• Cofactors can be either inorganic ions (like zinc or magnesium) or organic molecules (like vitamins)

• Some cofactors are permanently bound to the enzyme, while others can bind and detach as needed

• Cofactors assist enzymes by providing additional chemical groups or helping with electron transfer reactions

• Enzymes are often inactive without their cofactors and may require cofactor binding to become fully functional

• Cohesion: The property of water molecules to stick together due to hydrogen bonding, forming a continuous chain that allows water to flow and be pulled upward in plants

• The cohesion between water molecules creates surface tension, allowing small insects to walk on water

• Cohesion is responsible for the transport of water and nutrients within plants through the xylem

• Cohesion helps to maintain the shape and structure of water droplets

• Cohesion is important for the movement of water from the roots to the leaves in plants through capillary action

• Covalent Bond: A type of chemical bond where two atoms share electrons, resulting in the formation of a molecular structure

• Covalent bonds are formed between nonmetallic elements

• The electrons are shared in such a way that the atoms involved achieve a stable electron configuration

• Covalent bonds can be polar or nonpolar, depending on the electronegativity difference between the atoms

• These bonds are stronger than ionic bonds and weaker than metallic bonds

• Cytoplasm: The jelly-like fluid that fills the cell, excluding the nucleus. It contains various organelles and supports cell structure while housing cellular processes.

• Cytoplasm is composed of water, salts, proteins, and other molecules

• Cytoplasm allows for the movement of organelles within the cell

• Many cellular reactions, including protein synthesis, occur in the cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm helps maintain cellular shape and cushions the organelles

• Cytoskeleton: Network of Protein Fibers that provides shape, structure, and support to cells

• The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

• Microtubules are hollow tubes made of the protein tubulin, and they help maintain cell shape and assist in cell division

• Microfilaments are made of the protein actin and are involved in cell movement, contraction, and support

• Intermediate filaments provide mechanical support and help anchor organelles within the cell

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom

• Electrons play a crucial role in chemical bonding and the formation of molecules

• Electrons exist in different energy levels or shells around the nucleus

• Electrons are involved in the process of oxidation-reduction reactions in living organisms

• Electrons are involved in the transfer of energy through electron transport chains in cellular respiration

• Endosymbiotic Theory: Holds that mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells used to be individual prokaryotic organisms that later formed a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotes.

• It was proposed by biologist Lynn Margulis

• The theory explains the origin of eukaryotes from prokaryotes

• Supports evolution by suggesting that collaboration can drive complexity

• Supported by genetic and functional similarities between mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacteria

• Energy: Ability to do work or cause changes, playing a vital role in all life processes from movement to growth

• "Energy" is mostly derived from food in living organisms

• Metabolism involves converging "Energy" into a usable form; ATP

• "Energy" in ecosystems flows from producers to consumers

• "Energy" conservation is a fundamental concept in life processes, aligning with the 1st law of thermodynamics

• Enzymes: are proteins that act as catalysts in living organisms, expediting chemical reactions without being consumed by those processes.

• Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy of a reaction

• Each enzyme catalyses a specific reaction, often associated with its name

• Enzymes can be influenced by factors such as temperature and pH

• Enzyme activity can be inhibited, either completely (non-competitive) or temporarily (Competitive)

• Epidemiology: Study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specific populations, and the application of This study to control health problems

• Involves analyzing patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease in populations

• Epidemiologists use various methods to identify risk factors and improve public health outcomes

• Key aspects include disease surveillance, outbreak investigation, and statistical analysis of data

• Epidemiology plays a crucial role in shaping public health policies and interventions

• Eukaryotic: Organisms are characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

• Eukaryotic cells include plants, animals, fungi, and protists

• The DNA in eukaryotic cells is organized into linear chromosomes within the nucleus

• Eukaryotic cells are generally larger in size than prokaryotic cells

• Eukaryotic organisms are able to carry out complex functions due to the specialized organelles within their cells.

• Experimental Control Group: Is a Standard Group used as a baseline for comparison in an experiment to determine the effect of the independent variable.

• Ensures any changes observed are due to the independent variable

• Helps in establishing cause-and-effect relationships

• Receives all factors present in the experimental group except for the independent variable

• Provides a basis for comparison to assess the impact of the independent variable

• Experimental Test Group: A group in an experiment that is exposed to the experimental treatment or condition being studied

• Typically compared to a control group that does not receive the treatment

• Results from the test group are compared to evaluate the effects of the treatment

• Important to have a large enough sample size in the test group for reliable conclusions.

• Random assignment helps ensure that factors other than the treatment do not influence the results.

• Facilitative Diffusion: The passive movement of molecules across a cell membrane with the help of specific carrier proteins

• Carrier proteins aid in transporting molecules down their concentration gradient

• It allows for the movement of larger or charged molecules that cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer

• Facilitative diffusion does not require energy input from the cell

• It is crucial for the uptake of important nutrients and ions by cells

• Golgi apparatus: an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that processes and packages proteins and lipids

• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

• It receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and modifies them through processes such as glycosylation

• It then packages and sorts the modified proteins into vesicles

• Gram + Bacteria: A Gram + bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls that retains the crystal violet stain in the presence of Gram staining.

• These bacteria appear purple under a microscope after the staining process

• They are usually sensitive to antibiotics like penicillin that target the cell wall

• These bacteria have common examples such as staphylococcus and streptococcus species.

• Gram - Bacteria: A Gram - bacteria have cell walls with a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides, with the presence of Gram staining

• The bacteria are commonly more resistant to antibiotics due to their outer membrane

• The bacteria contain common examples such as E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella

• Gram-negative bacteria are associated with various infections in humans such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and meningitis

• Gram-negative bacteria are classified based on their shape, metabolism, and other characteristics

• Homeostasis: The self-regulating process by which biological systems maintain stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

• Involved in maintaining bodily temperature, fluid balance, and blood pH levels.

• Regulated largely by the Endocrine and nervous systems.

• Hypertonic: In biological terms, “ Hypertonic,”refers to a solution with A higher Solute concentration related compared to another solution.

• It can cause cells to shrink in the process called crenation.

• Aquatic organisms may face challenges due to hypertonic solutions

• A hypotonic environment refers to a solution with a lower solute concentration, allowing the net movement of water molecules into the cell via osmosis

• In a hypotonic solution, a cell will swell as water moves inside.

• This is due to higher solute concentration inside the cell

• Inorganic Molecule: A molecule composed of compounds that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, the examples include water, salts, and metals.

• Inorganic molecules play essential roles in biological systems, such as in maintaining PH balance transporting ions

• Inorganic salts provide necessary nutrients for cellular functions and are also involved in nerve signal transmission.

• Ionic Bond: A type of chemical bond formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, typically between: A metal and anon-metal.

• Ionic bonds create compound structures termed as ‘ ionic compounds.’

• These bonds influence cell signaling and interactions.

• They determine properties of cell balance.

• Isotonic : Refers to a state where a cell and surrounding solution have equal solute concentrations, which results in no net movement of water.

• Isotonic solutions are ideal in human cells to maintain normal functionality.

• Isotonic avoids cell damage.

• Isotonic solutions are commonly used in intravenous in medical conditions.

• Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds, that aren't soluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents, and primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

• Lipids serve as a function for storing energy and thermal insulation.

• they're vital for Energy storage.

• Dietary lipids can essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized within the body.

• Lysosomes: Small membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris

• Lysosomes are involved in the process of autophagy, where the cell degrades and recycles it's own components.

• Macronutrients: Essential nutrients with large quantities, are required by living organisms for growth, development and energy production

• There are three main macronutrients: carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

• Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred source of energy for daily needs.

• Malnutrition , is a Condition shown by an insufficient diet that can lead to health problems.

• Malnutrition can result in stunted growth which results in a weakened immune system with an increased susceptibility immune suppression

• Metabolism: Chemicals occurrences in a living organisms to maintain life.

• It is categorized into catabolism(breaking down) and anabolism (building up)

• some Factors affecting metabolism are age and genes.

• Micronutrients: Essential nutrients required by the body in small amounts for optimal health and proper fuctioning of various Biological processes.

• These nutrient play a significant role in contributing to the daily development and growth.

• Minerals: essential Nutrients that the human body needs in small amounts and plays a crucial role in maintaining proper functioning.

• play a key role in nerve, muscle, and maintaining fluid balance.

• Mitochondria: Organelles which are found in eukaryotic cells which function and as the cell's energy providers by generation the most of the ATP energy cells require

• The amount of mitochondrion can depend on the cell need.

• Molecule: the smallest unit of a chemical compound that retains the chemical characteristics of that compound.

• Constructed of two or more Atoms bonded together.

• may be simple or complex.

• Neutrons: subatomic particles commonly found in the nucleus in an Atom which provides stability in stabilizing the Atom.

• neutrons have a mass similar to protons.

• Nucleic: Acids

• Nucleus of a Cell: DNA in form of chromosomes

• Nucleus of Atom: located in the central core of an atom.

• Organic Molecule: Chemical compound that consist of carbon Atoms in long rings and compounds.

• Osmosis: Movement of water Molecules to help with a high amount of Solute Concentrations.

• Passive Transport: Transports items in the cell

• Peer Reviewed Journals: Reviewed by Expert

• Peer Review: A process of reviewing experts

• Penicllium: Spores found in diverse environments.

• Phospholipid: a class of lipids that consist of all membranes

• PH scale: determine acidity within the solution

• Polarity of Water: Molecules to help cohesion.

• Process of Science: To draw conclusions to advance understanding of Knowledge.

• Prokaryotic: a single organism which lacks organelles

• Properties of Life: to help with energy and reproduction

• Proteins: Composed of complex amino acids.

• Protons: Positively charged particles with energy.

• Randomized Clinical Trail: assign randomly

• Ribosome: The process is known as translation

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: involved in synthesis and movement.

• Sample Size: Data points collected for Statistical Reliability

• Science: Understanding the Natural Life

• Scientific Method: systematic procedure for conducting research

• Scientific theory: underpinned explanation of natural phenomena

• Simple Diffusion: The Movement of molecules in an orderly way.

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Network of tabular membranes

• Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solution

• Solute, changes physical properties

• Solution: A solute that is dissolved in a Solvent

• Solvent : aids in molecular transportation

• Vitamins organic compounds for body