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Questions and Answers
According to Sachs (1967), participants struggled to identify which sentences were identical to the original story because:
According to Sachs (1967), participants struggled to identify which sentences were identical to the original story because:
What is the distinguishing feature of the Procedural Memory system in Squire's Model of LTM (1992)?
What is the distinguishing feature of the Procedural Memory system in Squire's Model of LTM (1992)?
They influence behavior without any conscious recollection.
The medial temporal lobe includes the ________.
The medial temporal lobe includes the ________.
hippocampus
Match the memory category in Squire's Model of LTM (1992) with its corresponding system:
Match the memory category in Squire's Model of LTM (1992) with its corresponding system:
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What are the four components of Squire's Model of LTM (1992) that are discussed in detail?
What are the four components of Squire's Model of LTM (1992) that are discussed in detail?
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What is Long-Term Memory?
What is Long-Term Memory?
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Explain the relationship between Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM).
Explain the relationship between Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM).
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What does the Serial-Position Effect demonstrate?
What does the Serial-Position Effect demonstrate?
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According to some theories, Short-Term Memory (STM) is just a part of Long-Term Memory (LTM) activated at any given moment.
According to some theories, Short-Term Memory (STM) is just a part of Long-Term Memory (LTM) activated at any given moment.
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What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory processing?
What is the primary function of the hippocampus in memory processing?
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_______ is the process of storing external stimuli in Long-Term Memory.
_______ is the process of storing external stimuli in Long-Term Memory.
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Match the type of coding with its description:
Match the type of coding with its description:
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What type of memory was impaired in amnesic patients in the study?
What type of memory was impaired in amnesic patients in the study?
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In the study by Gregory et al. (2016), what type of memory was not impaired in patient L.J.S?
In the study by Gregory et al. (2016), what type of memory was not impaired in patient L.J.S?
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Schwartz and Hashtroudi (1991) found a relationship between procedural learning task performance and priming task performance.
Schwartz and Hashtroudi (1991) found a relationship between procedural learning task performance and priming task performance.
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Which brain area showed activation in healthy adults during a procedural memory task according to Debaere et al. (2004)?
Which brain area showed activation in healthy adults during a procedural memory task according to Debaere et al. (2004)?
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Match the following terms with their descriptions: Declarative Memory and Nondeclarative Memory
Match the following terms with their descriptions: Declarative Memory and Nondeclarative Memory
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What are the two separate systems of declarative memory according to Tulving (1972)?
What are the two separate systems of declarative memory according to Tulving (1972)?
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Which memory system involves specific memories of personally experienced events?
Which memory system involves specific memories of personally experienced events?
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Semantic memory problems can occur early in some disorders, and these tests may be used to screen for _____________ (e.g., Alzheimer’s Disease).
Semantic memory problems can occur early in some disorders, and these tests may be used to screen for _____________ (e.g., Alzheimer’s Disease).
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Episodic and Semantic memory are shown to be completely separate systems.
Episodic and Semantic memory are shown to be completely separate systems.
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Match the memory system with its description:
Match the memory system with its description:
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What is procedural memory?
What is procedural memory?
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What is priming?
What is priming?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Long-Term Memory
- Long-term memory (LTM) is a relatively permanent storage vault for a lifetime's worth of knowledge and experience.
- LTM is used to remember:
- General knowledge (semantic memories)
- Events from our lives (episodic memories)
- Skills (procedural memories)
Distinguishing STM and LTM
- STM (Short-Term Memory) holds a small amount of information in an active, highly available state.
- LTM is a relatively permanent storage vault for a lifetime's worth of knowledge and experience.
- If you are currently thinking about something, it is in STM. If not, but it is accessible later, it is in LTM.
STM and LTM Continually Interact
- STM and LTM continually interact.
- STM sends information to LTM for storage.
- STM accesses information stored in LTM.
- LTM can increase STM's capacity by combining single pieces of information into meaningful chunks.
The Serial-Position Effect
- The serial-position effect demonstrates how information passes between STM and LTM.
- The effect shows that:
- More words from the start of the list are recalled than the middle.
- More words from the end of the list are recalled than the middle.
Why Does the Serial-Position Effect Occur?
- The primacy effect occurs because early list words are rehearsed more and enter LTM for durable storage.
- The recency effect occurs because late-list words are still in STM and are easily recalled.
Are STM and LTM Separate Systems?
- Some theories argue that STM and LTM are not separate systems, and that STM is simply a part of LTM that is activated at any given moment.
- However, studies on amnesic patients show a double-dissociation between STM and LTM, suggesting they are separate systems.
STM and LTM in the Brain
- STM and LTM involve separate brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.
- The hippocampus is associated with LTM, but there is debate over whether it is also involved in STM processing.
The Hippocampus and LTM
- Traditionally, the hippocampus was believed to create LTM's, but not be involved in STM.
- However, later research suggests the hippocampus may also assist with STM maintenance.
Coding and Encoding
- Different external stimuli are stored in LTM in different formats/codes.
- The process of storing external stimuli in LTM is called encoding or coding.
- There are many types of coding, including:
- Visual coding
- Auditory coding
- Semantic coding
Semantic Encoding/Coding
- Semantic coding is a type of coding in which the general meaning of a sentence or story is coded and stored in LTM.
- When recalling the information, the semantic representation appears in our minds.
Multiple Representations
- We can code multiple aspects of a stimulus and hold multiple representations of it in LTM.
- For example, we can recall the plot of a movie as semantic coding and picture the characters as visual coding.
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model of Memory (1968)
- Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the first major model describing human memory's structure.
- They suggested we have three major memory systems: STM, LTM, and sensory memory.
Squire's Model of LTM (1992)
- Squire proposed the first major model of LTM, which is still the main model today.
- He said we have two qualitatively different categories of LTM:
- Declarative Memory (explicit memory)
- Nondeclarative Memory (implicit memory)
The Biological Bases of Squire's Model of LTM (1992)
- The medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus, is involved in LTM.
Key Takeaways
- By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
- Explain how STM and LTM differ at a functional level.
- Explain whether or not STM and LTM are biologically distinct.
- Explain how information is encoded/coded in LTM and what semantic coding is.
- Explain how declarative and nondeclarative memory differ.
- Name the different declarative and nondeclarative memory systems in Squire's (1992) LTM model.
Long-Term Memory Structure
- Long-term memory (LTM) is divided into declarative and non-declarative memory systems
- Declarative memory is further divided into episodic and semantic memory
Episodic and Semantic Memory
- Episodic memory: specific memories of personally experienced events (e.g., first day at university, breakfast today)
- Semantic memory: general knowledge, memories of facts, meanings, and concepts (e.g., capital of France, types of furniture)
Episodic Memory Tests
- Free recall: recalling information in any order
- Serial recall: recalling information in a set order (e.g., backwards)
- Cued recall: using cues or aids to recall information
- Recognition: identifying information as old (studied) or new (not studied)
Semantic Memory Tests
- Picture/object naming: naming familiar objects, often seen in pictures (e.g., scissors)
- Category fluency: naming as many category exemplars as possible in a set time (e.g., fruits)
Are Episodic and Semantic Memory Separate?
- Different feelings when recalling episodic and semantic memories
- Cognitive neuropsychology research shows brain lesions impact one or the other
- Cognitive neuroscience research shows distinct brain areas process both
Procedural Memory
- Stores knowledge of learned skills
- Created in three stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous
- Example: tying shoelaces, writing a sentence, riding a bicycle
Priming
- Occurs when the presentation of one stimulus influences processing of a later stimulus
- Types: repetition priming, semantic priming
- Helps speed up mental processing in everyday life
Repetition Priming
- Presentation of a stimulus speeds up its processing (e.g., seeing "nurse" twice)
- Studied using picture recognition tasks
Patient H.M.
- Famous amnesic patient who underwent surgery to cure epilepsy
- Developed severe memory problems, including impaired episodic and semantic memory
- Could not form new episodic memories, but had excellent knowledge of words learned pre-surgery
- Showed separate declarative and non-declarative memory systems
Separate Declarative and Non-Declarative Memory Systems?
- Patient H.M. showed improved mirror tracing skills over time, but no recollection of learning the skill
- Patient H.M. showed intact priming, but impaired episodic memory
- Evidence suggests separate declarative and non-declarative memory systems that interact with each other
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