Construction Staking-Out

Preparation for Construction

• Staking-out entails driving stakes for batter boards; it helps locate the corners and foundations for excavation
• Staking-out requires relocating the boundary point and property line of the location where the building will be constructed

Staking-Out Process

• Measure the required setback from the front corner monuments
• Drive two stakes, and stretch a string between them; it represents the front building line
• Measure the required side setback from one of the side lot lines along the front building line
• Drive stake A, which represents the first corner of the building
• Measure Stake A to the width of the building, and mark it with Stake B to obtain the other front corner
• Estimate right angles from Stakes A and B and measure the building's length
• Drive two temporary stakes C and D at those two points, which marks the building's rear corners; C-D equals A-B
• Draw lines along the diagonals A-D and B-C, and ensure equality
• Transfer the building lines to batter boards

Materials

• Stakes are wooden sticks, sharpened at one end, and driven into the ground; they serve as boundaries or support the batter boards
• Strings are either plastic cords or galvanized wires that are strung across batter boards; they are used to indicate the layout of the building wall and foundation

Batter Boards

• Horizontal boards
• Establishes the height of footing trenches and foundations
• Establishes the height of finish floor levels
• Leveling is done using a line level, a carpenter's level, or transit
• Batter boards may be level with or slightly higher than the top of the finished foundation

Batter Boards Defined

• Wood sticks or boards nailed horizontally at the stake that serves as the horizontal plane at the reference point of the building measurements

Additional Terminology

• Spirit Level is an instrument or tool capable of checking vertical and horizontal lines
• Plumb Bob is a weight attached to a string used for vertical line checks
• Plastic Hose Filled With Water is a method that horizontally levels batter boards without transit
• 3-4-5 Multiples With the Use of Steel Tape Measure is a manual method for squaring the corners of building lines in staking

Formwork and Shoring

• Formwork is used to shape and support fresh concrete until cured and able to support itself
• Shoring is temporary support designed to carry forms for beams and slabs

Forms for Concrete Construction

• Lumber should be partially seasoned
• Plywood is used where a smooth surface is required; it should be waterproof, Grade A, and at least 1½" thick
• Steel may be in the form of pans for concrete joist construction, steel decking, or corrugated steel for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction
• Fiber Boards
• Phenolic Boards include phenolic resin or phenol-formaldehyde resin, a thermosetting, waterproof, low-cost, mold-resistant, high-strength synthetic resin made from phenol and formaldehyde
• Phenolic resin is used extensively in the manufacture of adhesives, exterior and marine plywood, laminated products, and molded articles with good resistance to aging

Lumber Forms and Shoring

• Lumber should be partially seasoned and slightly wet in order to prevent swelling and distortion
• Lumber should be dressed at least on one side and but have even edges for non-exposed surfaces
• Joints in the forms for columns, beams, and girders are tightened by dressing the lumber true to the edge, forming square or butt joints
• Tight joints in floor and wall panels are obtained by using tongue-and-grooved stock
• Lumber sizes: 2-inch stock for columns, beams, and girder bottoms: 1-inch stock for floor panels and beam and girder sides; 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights, 1 or 2-inch stock for cleats
• Crude oil and petrolin prevent concrete from adhering to the wood and preserve the forms against damage by alternate wetting and drying
• Forms against surfaces require water wetting since oiling prevents adhesion of the plaster
• Wire ties or bolts and rods are used to hold wall forms together; rods are preferred and should be arranged that upon removal of the forms, no metal remains within one inch of any surface
• Wire ties should be used only on light and unimportant work where discoloring is not objectionable
• Plywood forms, used where a smooth surface is required, should be waterproof, Grade "A" and at least 1½" thick

Shoring with Steel forms

• Shoring supports scaffolding work
• Scaffolds are temporary platforms designed to support workers and materials on the face of a structure and to provide access to work areas above ground; any elevated platform is a scaffold
• The ledger is the horizontal brace
• The brace is the diagonal can be the adjustable or fixed type
• The standard refers to the vertical component
• Accessories include heads, jacks, and bases

Construction Tools & Equipment

• Tools and equipment are grouped into four categories
• Hand tools use manually delivered power
• Power tools employ power supplied by resources outside of humans
• Equipment is a classification for large, complex tools and machines designed for particular jobs
• Heavy equipment is particularly large and powerful

Hand Tools

• A pry bar is used to force open boards in forming concrete
• Measurement and layout tools include:
  • Folding rule and tape measure: For measuring boards, pipe, wire, etc.
  • Digital rule: Measures highway construction distances
• A framing square is a layout tool that measures 90-degree angles and determines cutting angles on dimension lumber
• A level is a straight tool containing vials of liquid, used to determine horizontal or vertical accuracy
• A chalk line or chalk box marks lines

Hammers

• Claw hammer: Used to drive/remove nails
• Sledgehammer: Used to drive stakes, break concrete and stone

Screwdrivers

• Standard screwdriver: A flat tip that fits a standard slotted screw
• Phillips screwdriver: An X-shaped tip to turn Phillips-head screws
• Spiral ratchet screwdriver: Relies on pushing instead of twisting

Handsaws

• Ripsaw: Chisel teeth for cutting with the grain of wood
• Crosscut saw: Cuts across the grain of wood.
• Backsaw: Thin blade for straight cuts on trims and mouldings.
• Hacksaw: Cuts metals

Chisels

• Wood chisel: Trims wood and clears excess wood joints
• Cold chisel: Trims metals
• Specialized hand tools include:
  • Nail set: Drives finishing nails below a wooden trim or molding surface
  • Pipe wrench: Turns round objects
  • Brick trowel: Places mortar between bricks or concrete blocks
  • Bull float: Smoothes wet concrete
  • Blind riveter: Fastens sheet metal

Power Tools

• Power drill: Drills holes in wood, metal, and concrete
• Power screwdriver/screwgun: Installs and removes screws
• Types of power saws:
  • Radial arm saw: Crosscuts wood with a motor-driven saw blade hung on an arm
  • Table saw: Cuts large wood sheets with a blade beneath a table-like surface
  • Portable circular saw: Cuts difficult materials
  • Power miter saw: Makes varied angle cuts in wood
  • Saber saw: Cuts curves/holes for pipes and has a small knife blade

Power hammers

• Pneumatic hammer/jackhammer: Breaks concrete or asphalt
• Rotary hammer: Like a drill, it rotates, reciprocates, and makes holes in concrete

Power nailers

• Nailers/nail guns: Fasten materials wby shooting nails
• Powder-actuated stud driver: Gunpowder powers long pins into wood, steel, or concrete
• Staplers: Nailers with U-shaped staples for fastening

Equipment

• Conveyor: Moves materials other than water
• Transit is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to obtain land elevation
• Surveyor's level is that which determines unknown elevation levels
• Construction laser flashes low beams of light to make baselines for measurement

Pumps

• Water pump: Removes water from holes to enable construction work

• Concrete pump: Transports concrete from mixer to concrete forms

Welding Machines

• Concrete Mixer (Cement Mixer): Mixes concrete ingredients
• Arc welding machine: Welds materials by melting portions
• Laser-powered welder: Welds with a directed laser

Heavy Equipment

• Bulldozer: A pushing blade tractor to clear land
• Crawler crane: Moves rough terrain on metal treads
• Truck crane: A truck transported crane
• Tower crane: Building tall structures

Excavating Machinery

• Excavator: Machine used for digging or scooping earth and then depositing it elsewhere

• Backhoe: General digger on crawlers or trucks

• Trencher: Digs trenches/ditches for pipelines/cables

• Front-end loader: Large shovel, scoops/deposits materials

Construction Machinery

• Scraper: Loads, hauls, and dumps soil over distances
• Grader: Levels the ground
• Compactor/roller: Compacts soil for paving
• Paver: Places spreads, and finishes concrete/asphalt material

Major Parts of a Building

• Superstructure: Portion above the ground
• Substructure: Habitable Area under the ground
• Foundation: The structural portion that transfer the building's load into the soil

Substructure types

• Slab on Fill rests on the ground
• Crawl Space: Below the first floor of the building if there is no basement
• Basement: The lower part of the building, usually underground

Foundation Bed

• "Foundation" applies to construction below-grade
• Footing courses and basement walls form a lower structure section
• Natural material at Earth's surface where construction rests

Foundation Beds

• Rock (solid rock, bedrock or ledge): Undisturbed rock masses forming an undisturbed part of the original rock-formation, such as granite, slate, sandstone, and limestone with softer rocks being shale, shaley slates and certain marley limestone and clay stones

• Decayed rock (rotten rock): Sand, clays, and other materials from mass disintegration

• Loose rock: Rock masses detaching from original ledge

• Gravel: Water-worn, rounded rock fragments between sand and boulders.

• Boulders: Large, rounded rocks moved by water from original ledges

• Sand: Non-coherent particles under 1/4''

• Clay: Plastic material from decomposing feldspathic rocks

• Hard-pan: Clay mix or cementing material

• Silt: Earthy material from running water

• Mud:Earth with vegetable matter, deposited from slow or standing water.

• Mould: Earth with proportionally high amounts of humus or vegetable matter

• Loam: Earth with a portion of vegetable matter

• Peat: Vegetable matter is compressed

• Filled Ground: Artificial fills with settling/shrinkage

Allowable loads on Foundation Beds

• Thorough investigation determines the unit bearing load
• Uniform or reduced loads on the foundation bed relate to the conditions and material

Foundation Bed Terminology

• Foundation bed is the natural material on which something rests

• Foundation walls are the retaining walls below grade

• Foundation piers/columns: Piers/columns below grade, distinguishing from similar abovegrade.

• Grade beam: Part of the foundation that helps support the exterior wall

• Footing courses: Walls, a pier or column's lower portion, are spread to provide bases

Types of Foundation Beds

• Solid Rock, Bedrock, or Ledge. Undisturbed rock masses forming an undisturbed part of the original rock formation, such as granite and limestone, with soft rocks like shale and shaley slated and clay stones
• Decayed rock (rotten rock): Sand, clays etc from mass disintegration, lacking features that occupy space formerly held by it
• Loose Rock: Ledge rock that has detached
• Gravel: Usually water-worn and round, sized in between that of a sand particle and a boulder
• Boulders: Detached rock that has been moved by water a considerable distance
• Sand: Smaller particles that are non-coherent under 1¼" in maximum dimension
• Clay: Plastic material from decomposition and alumina silicates
• Hard-pan: Coherent mixture of clay-cementing with other materials such as gravel
• Silt: Finely divided materials from run-off
• Mud: Mostly vegetation material from still-moving water
• Mould: Mostly vegetable matter, that may contain some humus
• Loam consists of earthy materials
• Peat consist of mostly compressed vegetation matter
• Filled Ground consists of materials that can shrink and consolidate that are uniform

Site Investigation

• The architect obtains site excavation and building erection data to know the character of base materials
• Test pits: Shallow, with inspection of undisturbed material over a wide area

Additional Tests

• Test borings: To investigate underlying material
• Loading tests, used for confirming safe bearing capacity

Types of Soil

• Coarse-grained soil consists of relatively large particles visible to the naked eye
• Fine-grained soil features much smaller particles like silt and clay

Soil Stability Criteria

• All criteria are defined by their strength

• Allowable Bearing Capacity is the permitted unit pressure of vertically or laterally imposed foundations

• Density is a critical factor of bearing

• Standard Penetration Test measures granular soil density, or consistency of clays

• Maximum Dry Density refers to the soil density after heated to dryness

• Shearing Strength evaluates resistance to displacement, largely from cohesion and internal friction

• Water Table is the depth at which soil is saturated

Excavation and Earthworking Processes

• Excavating means digging to form the building's foundation
• Leveling and Grading changes land elevation
• Stabilizing the soil means compacting for structures
• Adjoining Structure Protection is a law holding excavators responsible for damage

Shoring

• Shoring transfers wall load to temporary footings; It's done when excavations don't drop much below adjacent footings

• Composed of:

• Timber, steel, or pre-cast planks driven together for retaining earth of Sheet piles

• Wales (horizontal beams holding sheet piles).

• Steel H-sections or soldier piles.

• Heavy wood that makes up plank lagging

• Cross-bracing or rakers supports wales and soldier piles

• Soil anchor tiebacks used when cross bracing is impractical

Building Shoring

• Girders (needles) used if wall weight needs to be carried in cases where the old footing needs to be removed

• "Needling" describes beams that pass to temporarily altering a part beneath-

• "Dead shoring" is defined as a timber used to support a "dead" load, in the instance of alterations needing needle supports.

• Dewatering" means lowering the water levels during construction.

• It makes use of wellpoints, which collect water.

Types of Site Drainage

• Site drainage prevents erosion or water collection from new construction

• Runoff is defined as the surface-water accumulated during ground rainfall

• Ground water denotes water near the surface

Draining Water from Soils

• Sub surfaces involve piping which carries groundwater for removal
• Surface drainage refers to grading a site in a way to divert storm water as well as rain

Basic Drainage Options

• Catch Basins help retain most of surface storm waters, which then slowly pass the storm waters to the underground drainage
• Areas for Drainage that run under the road include culverts
• Foundation tiles pipes act as collectors for the subsurface water
• Tile drains are pipes used to create saturation when draining certain soils

Other drainage options

• Stormwater drainage in green/lawn with slopes can vary from 1% to 10% to ensure proper removal depending on surface.
• Surface drainage swales refer to depressions used to divert water

Key Points

• Area drains are used for rainwater collection, in areas that are open
• Dry wells help to collect rubble for retaining soil, while also removing the stormwater

Construction Terminology

• Absorption Trench: A trench containing coarse aggregate that may also have the possibility of having pipes.
• Ponds as well Marsh: areas designed as a tool for water surface catchment

Slope Building Structures

• If building or making use of topography, make sure to support slope by doing the following

• Elevate the Structure with Column for ground relief to reduce plane disturbance

• Terracing or stepping the surface ensures there is no over cutting of slopes

Structures built around slopes:

• Retaining walls are encouraged
• Appropriate water channeling is implemented, in addition the use of plant materials should be used

Retaining Structure

• Riprap protects slopes with stones
• Cribbing refers to a cellular structure framework that assembles in layers to help retain earth
• Bins are a type of retaining wall, with interlocking modular walls

Erosion Solutions

• Gabions: Galvanized boxes filled with rock used as support
• Slopes are protected by controlling drainage at the top
• Plant slope binders: Soil binder plants with roots

Wall stability in Slopes

• Stability is influenced by the angle of repose

• Gravity Retaining Wall to resist mass, by volume, as well sheer force, must take into over turning, and sliding

Retaining Concrete Walls

• Should not be exceeding by vertical force
• T-type Wall-Cantilevered has limited Height
• Counter-fort utilizes walls to stiffen loads
• L-type Cantilever with restrictions based in wall area

Materials for Retaining Walls

• Most walls involve drainage, and require horizontal supports which are tied together

• Can consist of masonry or stone

• In dry-areas walls can use a mixture of these approaches, when a base in the region is compacted

Key things to consider when retaining the slope

• There are retaining walls that help to establish and retain areas as well as adjust level
• There are some key points to look into, to prevent failure:

Point 1: Over-turning

• Counter weight is needed as a measure which helps to control the overall weight and soil
• For support this is key

Point 2: Sliding

• Friction is needed from the soil to sustain the lateral forces
• Capacity: Soil must not vertical be exceeded

Surface Terminology

• Subgrade should be undisturbed, in order to carry the load
• Well is to be used for base migration

Unit Terminology

• To transfer protection which is traffic from it’s loads a payment is needed!

• Rigid/Mix surfaces (concrete/tar) or sand help make up a set of these areas

• Flexible is more required in stone setting which creates great movement

Slope Factors

• Pavement needs to slope for drainage
• Flexible payment needs to be of good surface to move
• Rigid material and extension is the key in drainage

HardWare

• Products made of mental, used in constriction to maintain structural stability
• Can be split and categorized as = Rough

Category for Metal

• Products made to be placed in the internal structure, not made for decorative use

Finish

• Products made and designed for surface exterior aesthetics, some used for support as well, in structures = Door handles can vary, and door supports such as Hinges do so as well

Key Components.

• Latches and locksets help as the method of locking the surface
• Hinges make for the act of motion through pivot These act as the function of Door

Hinges

• Hinges can be made from different materials, depending upon purpose of motion Types of Hinges:
• Bute: referred as bats, placed on edge side of door, leaf the odd the number side is even! This in turn ensures there is balance at these Three types of These are:

Full mortise

• Leaf is placed fully at the surface with complete removal

• Half; There is some removal and place

• Surface: Simply attaches without damage Other options can take form by these:

• Fast pin: can have either a fast system, or lose type pin function.

• Loose Joint: Used for motion on knuckle shapes, to rotate.

• Olive hinge; Used for the oval.

• Invisible, when closed cannot be seen! Known as Soss!

• Springs used here help the mechanism of door, close without assistance

Other Door Components and Types

• Latches are methods of keeping doors within position, with assistance

Knobs : Sphere-Shaped!

• Escutcheon: protective method to maintain cable wires

Strike method

• Strike: Help’s set the location of the door, is secured here
• Lip: Project’s, for more secure strike support