Constitutional Convention (Ch. 1)

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Constitutional Convention (Ch. 1)

• A strong executive in a representative republic provides stability, efficiency in decision-making, and strong leadership
• Potential disadvantages of a strong executive are risk of tyranny, excessive power concentration, and potential abuse of authority
• Aristotle viewed democracy as a tyrannical form of government that could lead to mob rule, where the majority oppresses the minority
• State executives were generally weak in Revolutionary America due to fears of monarchy, giving legislatures dominant control
• The Articles of Confederation had no separate executive branch; executive functions were carried out by committees of Congress, leading to inefficiency and lack of enforcement power
• The Virginia Plan favored large states and proposed a strong national government with a bicameral legislature and a singular executive chosen by Congress
• The New Jersey Plan favored small states and proposed a unicameral legislature with equal representation and a weak multi-person executive
• Hamilton advocated for a lifetime-appointed executive, akin to an elected monarch, arguing for a strong, independent leader free from legislative influence

Creating the Executive (Ch. 2)

• During the Constitutional Convention debates, a unitary executive prevailed over a multi-person executive
• The method of selection debate led to the Electoral College instead of congressional selection vs. direct election
• Terms of office were settled on four-year terms with the possibility of reelection
• Citizens vote for electors, who then formally cast votes for the president
• The number of electors per state equals its congressional delegation (House + Senate)
• A candidate needs a majority (270) of electoral votes to win
• The 22nd Amendment limits the president to two terms or a maximum of ten years in office if serving as a replacement for another president

Removing a President and Succession

• The House of Representatives impeaches the president by a majority vote in the two-step process
• The Senate holds a trial and can convict and remove the president with a two-thirds vote
• In a presidential system, the executive (president) is separate from the legislature and elected independently
• In a parliamentary system, the executive (prime minister) is chosen by the legislature and can be removed by a vote of no confidence
• Enumerated powers of the executive branch include executing laws, vetoing bills, granting pardons, appointing officials, making treaties, and serving as commander-in-chief
• Treaties require approval by a two-thirds vote in the Senate
• Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate
• The president can pardon individuals for federal crimes, except in cases of impeachment
• The president nominates judges and cabinet members, but the Senate must confirm them
• Congress establishes new cabinet departments through legislation
• A pocket veto occurs when the president does not sign a bill within ten days while Congress is adjourned, preventing it from becoming law
• The president can appoint officials while the Senate is in recess, though such appointments are temporary
• The president must ensure that laws are faithfully executed, which has been interpreted to justify broad executive actions under the Take Care Clause
• The vesting clause gives the president broad powers beyond those explicitly listed in the Constitution, according to some
• Others believe it only allows for the execution of enumerated powers
• The Vice President primarily serves as President of the Senate and casts tie-breaking votes and assumes the presidency if the president dies, resigns, or is removed from office

Washington and Adams (Ch. 3)

• Washington established the norm of seeking advice from department heads but maintaining executive authority
• Washington used the veto sparingly, only when legislation was unconstitutional
• Washington advocated for neutrality and non-involvement in European conflicts and also more power for precedents
• Political parties emerged during Washington's presidency
• Federalists, led by Hamilton, favored a strong central government, commerce, and Britain
• Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson, favored states' rights, agrarianism, and France
• Main issues dividing the parties were the National Bank, interpretation of the Constitution (loose vs. strict), economic policies, and foreign alliances
• The Neutrality Act prevented U.S. involvement in European wars, which angered those who supported France and sparked debates over executive vs. congressional war powers
• The Jay Treaty with Britain to resolve lingering post-Revolutionary War issues, was criticized for being too conciliatory to Britain, causing public backlash and weakening Washington's approval
• John Adams (Federalist) won but his opponent (Jefferson) became VP due to electoral rules
• Adams had tensions with Hamilton, who sought greater influence over Federalist policies
• The Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by Federalists under Adams, targeting immigrants and restricting speech critical of the government

Jeffersonians (Ch. 4)

• Main tenets of Democratic-Republican ideology included limited federal power, strict constitutional interpretation, agrarian economy, and support for France
• The Election of 1800 marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history
• D-R Presidents faced the dilemma of balancing ideological commitment to small government with practical governance challenges
• The 12th Amendment revised the Electoral College to prevent a president and VP from being elected from opposing parties
• Congress was stronger than the executive during D-R presidencies because D-Rs feared executive power, leading to congressional dominance in policymaking
• "King Caucus" was a system where congressional party leaders selected presidential nominees, limiting broader democratic participation
• The War of 1812 weakened the Federalists due to their opposition to the war, leading to their decline
• The "Era of Good Feelings" was a period of reduced political strife following the collapse of the Federalist Party under Monroe's presidency
• Monroe's Doctrine opposed European interference in the Americas
• Continued expansion, infrastructure improvements, and economic stability were domestic steps
• In the Election of 1824, no candidate won a majority, so the House decided the winner (John Quincy Adams) in what was called the “Corrupt Bargain."
• Long-term effects of the Election of 1824 led to the formation of new political factions and the rise of Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party

Polarization (Topic 5)

• Data shows that polarization between parties has steadily increased since 1879
• The late 20th century saw a significant rise in ideological division, especially from the 1970s onward
• A trend towards polarization in views toward the president began around the 1980s, intensifying in the 1990s with partisan media influence
• Partisan approval ratings of the president have widened significantly
• Negative partisanship is voting behavior driven more by opposition to the other party rather than loyalty to one's own party
• Party ID is a psychological attachment to a political party
• Ideology is a set of beliefs about government policy and role
• People can have a party ID that does not perfectly align with their ideological beliefs
• In the 1950s, party ID and ideology were more loosely connected
• Today, they are highly correlated—Democrats are overwhelmingly liberal, Republicans overwhelmingly conservative
• Party ID is the #1 predictor of voting behavior
• Strong partisans are highly likely to vote for their party's candidates
• Party ID affects perception of political events and candidate evaluations, shapes policy preferences and media consumption
• A "pure" independent is a voter who does not lean toward either major party and votes unpredictably
• Roughly 10% or less of the electorate are pure independents
• Most self-identified "independents" actually lean toward one party
• Weak partisans identify with a party but are not strongly committed
• Leaners claim to be independent but consistently vote for one party
• Leaners behave much like partisans in voting and political views
• Pure independents have less consistent voting patterns

Notes on the Constitutional Convention, the need for a strong executive, and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Examines the Virginia Plan favoring large states and the New Jersey Plan favoring small states. Aristotle viewed democracy as a tyrannical form of government.