SAC 1 Psychology

• Conscious responses involve awareness and are typically more complex, voluntary, and intentional, utilizing input from the CNS, including somatic nervous system actions.
• Unconscious responses do not involve awareness and reactions are involuntary, unintentional, and automatic.
• Many autonomic functions are unconscious, as are reflexive responses, and tend to be simple

Reflexive Responses

• Help avoid danger/minimize harm through the contraction of skeletal muscles.
• Reflexive responses are simple, innate, do not require prior experience, and occur consistently in the same way each time

Spinal Reflex

• Is an unconscious response that initiates before conscious perception of a stimulus.
• It has an adaptive function as it offers a faster reaction time, reducing harm

Differences Between Conscious and Unconscious Responses

• Conscious responses involve awareness, while unconscious responses do not.
• Conscious responses are more complex, involving a series of responses, while unconscious responses are simple and involve one response to a stimulus.
• Conscious responses can involve learning, while unconscious responses generally do not.
• Conscious responses tend to require conscious input from the brain for decision-making, while unconscious responses can occur without conscious input from the brain.
• Conscious responses can include voluntary actions, such as skeletal muscle movement, while unconscious responses can include involuntary functions, such as the actions of the autonomic nervous system

Neurons

• Nerve cells that enable communication in the nervous system
• The soma takes information from the dendrite to the axon terminal and contains a nucleus.
• Dendrites receive information from the presynaptic neuron.
• Neurons are composed of an axon, myelin, and axon terminals
• Synaptic transmission happens when neural impulses reach the end of an axon, terminal buttons release chemicals called neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap, which is the space between neurons
• A synapse is the point of communication between neurons and includes the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron

Neurotransmitters

• A single neuron can release more than one neurotransmitter.
• Over 60 neurotransmitters have been identified in the brain.
• Each neurotransmitter has a chemically distinct shape and generally has either an excitatory or inhibitory effect
• Some neurotransmitters have an effect dependent on location, and effects are not entirely caused by chemical structure

Excitatory Effect

• Triggers or activates a neural impulse on the postsynaptic neuron
• Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, involved in perception, thinking, movement, enhanced learning and memory.
• Glutamate plays a crucial role in synaptic changes that occur during learning and memory and promotes growth and strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons that subsequently represent memory

Inhibitory Effect

• Blocks or prevents the postsynaptic neuron from firing
• Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS.
• GABA regulates neurotransmission throughout the brain and maintains neurotransmission at optimal levels, regulating anxiety, and is also involved in sleep patterns
• Too much neural activation results in anxiety or seizures

Reuptake

• The process of when a neurotransmitter that does not bind to a receptor site is absorbed back into terminal buttons

Neuromodulators

• A subclass of neurotransmitters that alter the strength of neural transmission by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitters.
• Neuromodulators are released slowly and in a diffuse manner, lasting longer than neurotransmitters
• Neuromodulators do not result in excitation or inhibition of a specific neuron but can alter both cellular and synaptic properties of multiple neurons
• Dopamine and serotonin are common neuromodulators

Dopamine

• Has multiple functions depending on where it acts in the brain
• Dopamine plays important roles in: voluntary movement, one neural pathway takes part in coordinating movement, the pathway originates in substantia nigra (midbrain), and dopamine produced in substantia nigra allows smooth coordinated movements
• Damage to the substantia nigra leads to low dopamine levels and less motor coordination, which is associated with Parkinson's diseae
• Dopamine contributes to the experince of pleasure, motivation, appetite, and reward-based learning

Mental Conditions

• Dopamine is implicated in mental conditions like Parkinson's, addiction, and schizophrenia
• Primarily excitatory, dopamine can also be inhibitory
• The brain has several dopamine pathways and producing areas
• The reward pathway involves a group of structures in the brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli and is an important determinant of motivation
• Dopamine is released when exposed to rewarding stimuli
• More dopamine released indicates a greater reward, and the release of dopamine leads to feelings of pleasure/euphoria
• The behavior with a pleasurable consequence is more likely to be repeated
• People learn to associate rewarding experiences with their causes, and anticipation of rewarding stimuli can become motivation for behaviors

Dopamine and Addiction

• Dopamine's connection to the reward center can result in unhealthy and addictive behavior
• An addiction is mostly caused by the brain's inability to produce dopamine without addiction stimuli
• An addiction indicates an unhealthy dopamine connection to the reward center, where only that behavior provides enough dopamine for pleasure

Serotonin

• Has a wide range of functions depending on its location in the brain
• Serotonin plays important roles in mood, emotional processing, and sleep onset
• Serotonin is effective for mood when levels are high, and the connection between serotonin and depression is unclear
• Balances serotonin levels often lead to calm focused, happy, stable moods, while low serotonin is associated with depression and anxiety

Sleep

• Serotonin is involved in sleep onset, but does not alone regulate the sleep-wake cycle
• Low serotonin leads to poor sleep patterns
• The brain uses serotonin in the pineal gland to produce melatonin
• An imbalance in serotonin leads to restless sleep causing frequent wake-ups, leading to nights without sleep, and an increased desire for sleep during the day

Additional Effects

• Serotonin also affects appetite and pain perception
• Serotonin is implicated in various mental conditions including depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.
• There are distinct serotonin producing areas and neural pathways.
• It has exclusively inhibitory effects on the brain

Aggression and Impulsivity

• Serotonin can regulate brain activity associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviors
• Lower serotonin equals discounting long term rewards
• Low serotonin can affect communication between the amygdala and the frontal cortex

Information Transmittance Between Two Neurons Through The Synapse

• The neural impulse travels down the neuron to the axon terminal.
• Terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap, which then bond to complimentary shaped receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron
• This triggers either an excitatory effect, activating a neural impulse on the postsynaptic neuron, or an inhibitory effect, where a neural impulse is not triggered or activated on the postsynaptic neuron

Learning

• Acquiring skill or knowledge
• Requires memory, as the capacity to retain what we learned
• Memory involves the expression of what has been acquired through learning and consists of neurological changes as a result of learning and the neurological representation of an event

Learning and Memory - Neurons

• Changes to the connection between neurons enable learning and memory
• Learning modifies neural pathways and connections
• Reorganization and formation of pathways makes future communication easier
• Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize the way it works

Neural Plasticity

• Neurons are flexible living cells that can grow new connections and change in function, size, and shape
• Our genes govern the overall architecture of the brain, but experience guides, sustains, and maintains the details
• The brain and its neural networks can change, grow, and reorganize, known as neural plasticity or neuroplasticity

Synaptic Plasticity

• Glutamate is released every time we use a pathway related to an experience.
• A relatively permanent or stable connection between neurons is formed when we learn something new and store a memory of it
• Synaptic plasticity denotes the ability of the synapse to change in response to experience and results in strengthening or weakening of these connections based on activity levels
• The brain modifies its connections and pathways, changing its structure and function as we learn by rewiring itself through reorganizing existing connections
• New networks and pathways can form and strengthen through use during learning and memory formation.
• This makes communication through connections and pathways easier next time
• Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons repeatedly activate forcefully and efficiently after a neurotransmitter is sent across the synaptic gap.
• This changes the structure and chemistry of the synapse, strengthening the connection of the neurons & making the neuron more likely to fire again and to transmit signals

Hebbian Theory

• Learning results in the creation of neural networks.
• "Neurons that fire together, wire together"
• When a neurotransmitter is repeatedly sent across the synapse, it can affect the strength of the connections
• Neurons that do not fire together weaken their connection

Neural Plasticity

• Two important processes involved:
  • Long-term potentiation (LTP): permanent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated activation that improves the ability of neurons to communicate at the synapse
  • Results in either the creation of new pathways or strengthening of existing ones, synaptogenesis, changes involved in LTP, and synapse strength increases due to extra neurotransmitters, bushier dendrites/more dendritic spines, increase in number and sensitivity of receptor sites, and growth of new synapses
  • Long-term depression (LTD) - a long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission and neuronal response that helps adapt our brain by weakening the strength of synaptic connections as a result of repeated low-level activation that is the opposite of LTP and allows our brain to adapt or change neural pathways, pruning neural connections that are no longer useful.
  • Importance of LTD = the ability to prune unimportant or unwanted connections, clear old memories to create space for new memories, and allow only important connections that have been strengthened by LTP can have a long term effect on behavior
  • LTP and LTD act together to modify synaptic connections between neurons, making learning more efficient
  • Specific modifications include:
  • Sprouting - growth of axon and/or dendritic fibers at the synapse, changing the physical structure/appearance of neurons so they look bushier, with the growth of axon sprouts called filigree appendages on the axon terminal and the growth of dendritic spines resulting in dendrites appearing bushier
  • Formation of additional synapses = synaptogenesis Rerouting - Formation of new connections to establish alternative pathways Pruning - removes of excess neurons aned synaptic connections

Types of plasticity

• Developmental plasticity: development and consolidation of neural pathways in babies, children, and adolescents.
• Adaptive plasticity: the changes to the brain in response to interaction with the environment.
• Young children tend to learn new languages more quickly than adults due to the developing brain having more plasticity than that of an adult
• Infants tend to recover more quickly from brain damage due to greater plasticity
• There are different types available, children have both developmental and adaptive plasticity, adults only have adaptive ones

Stress

• Stressors: Any stimuli that causes/produces stress and challenges our ability to cope, which may be a person, situation, or event and can be physical or psychological, and/or internal or external
• Stress: a state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors
• Can be perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resource to cope and involves a psychobiological process that is a state of mental, emotional and psychological tension in response to the stressor
• Psychological: Initial mental processes involved in perception and interpretation of stressor
• Biological: Activation of the autonomic nervous system
• Subjective experience and depend on our personal interpretation that is influenced by personality or past experience

Internal and External Stressors

• Internal stressors originate within an individual, while external stressors originate outside the individual
• Internal stressors can be biological, such as physical pain from injury or illness, and could impair ability to do something, causing stress, and psychological, such as high expectations or unrealistic pressure
• External stressors, include environmental, social, or cultural sources of stress with examples like loud noise, extreme temperature, or loss of a significant relationship

Acute and Chronic Stress

• Acute Stress: Stress that occurs because of a sudden threat and only lasts a short time with examples that include sitting an exam or starting a new job that can be beneficial helping us deal with challenges, yet also intense/life threatening
• Chronic Stress - Stress that lasts a long time, involving prolonged and constant feelings of stress with examples such as social isolation and bullying - It tends to be worse for the body due to:
  • Suppressing the immune system
  • Upset digestive and reproductive systems
  • Increase risk of stroke/heart attack
  • Speed up aging process
• Tends to be less intense or severe than acute stress, worse for your health than acute stress, and takes longer to recover from

Fight-Flight-Freeze Response

• Fight-Flight-Freeze Response includes patterns of biological processes in response to stressors that occur in the same way as all individuals and is a non-specific response to acute stress that does not distinguish between stimuli or sources of stress
• It is a physiological response including involuntary reactions resulting in a state of physiological readiness for immediate threat by confronting, running away, or remaining still, and includes aspects of theSympathetic nervous system and the Endocrine nervous system - reactions cannot be simultaneous
• Has an adaptive response letting us deal with threat to minimize harm and increase chances of survival/environment by Sympathetic Arousal activating the autonomic nervous system that is connected to internal organs and is controlled by the Sympathetic branch and controls arousal with:
  • Increased heart rate and respiration
  • Dilation of pupils
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline boost activity of sympathetic nervous system:
  • Increase heart rate
  • Increase blood pressure
  • Increase respiration
• Cortisol:
  • Increases metabolism and energy supplies such as blood sugar

Body System Activation

• Once a stressor is removed, parasympathetic brings the body to homeostasis
• Sympathetic is activated in 1/20th of a second, parasympathetic is slower
• Freeze reactions: where we are unable to flee or fight
  • Body movement and vocalization stops
  • Racing heart slows significantly
  • Blood pressure drops quickly
  • Tense muscles collapse and become still
  • Remaining still may help avoid detection and conserve energy
  • Not a passive state but parasympathetic brake on certain body systems/ Cortisol is important if we need to deal with a stressor over time (chronic stress) because additional psychological resources are needed

Other Important Factors

• The body cannot maintain the intensity of the fight-flight response for prolonged periods, and sympathetic nervous system response for fight-flight-freeze are almost instantaneous
• Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenocortical Axis (HPA Axis); When stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus is activated - The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin (CHR) which activates pituitary gland, The pituitary gland then releases adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) which then travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands above the kidneys, this triggers the release of corticosteroids (stress hormones) including adrenaline (aka epinephrine), noradrenaline (aka norepinephrine), and cortisol
• Short term release of cortisol is beneficial as this boosts our energy levels and increases blood glucose levels and increases the body's ability to repair tissues - Heightens awareness, increasing the brain's use of glucose and diverts energy from nonessential functions such as digestion, growth, and reproduction.
• Prolonged intense psychological arousal can be harmful to physical health leading to wear and tear on the body - Cortisol in high concentrations for prolonged periods: Suppress immune system functioning increases vulnerability to illness and the risk of disease, and suppresses bone growth and insulin production and constricts blood vessels, and impacts the amount of glucose levels in bloodstream - If remains high for too long impacts the immune system, osteoporosis, digestion, blood pressure and heart disease
• Intense or prolonged stress physiological responses:
  • Dizziness
  • Aches
  • Heart sensations
• Skin rashes
• Fatigue
• Headakes
• Colds
• Digestive -Stomach ulccers

Gut Brain Axis

• Re refers to the connection between the CNS and the ENS that enables the bidirectional communication between the brain and gastrointestinal tract that involves both direct and indirect pathways between cognitive/emotional brain areas with the gastrointestinal
• Enteric Nervous System (ENS): Embedded in the walls of the gastrointestinal tract/specialized for the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract - Comprises of 200-600 million sensory/motor/inter neurons running from lower half oesophagus to the rectum with various roles including:
  • Detecting the physiological condition of GI tracts and integrate its info
• Coordinates movement of materials
• Nutrient management
• Regulate secretions
• Hormone function
• Immune response
• Two way connections between the CNS and controls digestive system that is an independent function
• Can be influenced by the para/sympathetic
• Bidirectional communication occurs between the CNS and ENS via the Vagus nerve via gut microbiota:
  • Originates in brain stem, expands to colon Functions:
  • Largest nerves
  • Connects organs
  • Mood control
  • Immune system -Digestion
  • Heart rate
• Information about the gastrointestinal tract that can be sent from gut to the brain (vice versa)

Gut Microbiota

• Contains 100s of microbe species called gut microbiota
  • Digest food components that provides nutrients and provide energy
  • Involved in in hormone production
  • Effect on brain concentration
• Hormone control; production levels
• Bi directional communication
• Disturbance of microbiota causes changes in hormone production
• Gut microbiome effects serotonin levels that produces 80%
• Production/ action on
• Gut bacteria = collective for the gut microbiota They both change

Types of Bacteria

• They are NOT fixed
  • Influence by internal and external conditions
• Important to be characterized
• Need high levels that produce richness and diversity to be stable - resistance and resilience to change
• Disturbance can cause alterations regarding hormones and gut health
• System harm and digestive disorders
• Numerous infection and disease
• Stress
• Neurological conditions are possible impacts -Autism and parkisons, anxiety related as well

Stress

• Too much cortisol in the body affects the health overtime
• Chronic hormones = microbiome
• This impacts behavioral aned psychological health
• Disrupts the body by stress. Also
• In addition increased anxiety
• Alters stress responsiveness
• Can reduce stress = positive
• Microbiota= stress related problems

How it helps

• Vagus nerve provides key connections/ healthy diet=microbiome=increased health-
• Hormones that influence relaxation in the gut link = healthy!
• Optimizing communication, lowers responsiveness to negative stimulus

General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)

Stress

• Hans Selye- Stress causes hard
• Rats with stress
• Every organism acts same
• Adrenal glands
• Stomach Ulcers
• Conclusion: non specific
• Impacts same way
• internal and external stress Body demand
• Non Specific reactions
  • Blood pressure
  • Muscle tension
  • Digestion functions regardless of stress

How Stress Affects Us

• GAS system
• Physiological response=non specific
  • Alarm Reactions
  • Reactions:
    • Is there stress.
    • Activate response
    • Body starts to react

Continued Reactions

• Phase 1
  • Stress from shock
  • Functionality falls
  • Body goes through as injury
    • NOT FREEZE -Counter shock
      • rebound
      • active NS -resistant to
  • Activate response to stress
• If continues 2. Next state with resistance If cannot cope organism falls into it
• Adaptive stage; stress rises
• Decreased immune levels: high cort levels

Final Parts

• Susceptible to bacterial functions
• Final stage= exhaustion
• conservation stages/ stress with individual focus
  • hard momoizing
  • decline social
  • emotional

Strengths and Weaknesses

• 0:Provide good info
• Stage levels
  • Brain and system influence
• Connection = prolonged Limits:
  • Focused on bio
  • Less of the human response

Factors

• Response to stimulus varies
  • Mental illness or attitude and self esteem
• Folkman Importance of mental aspects
• 2 stages 1.Event meaning

2. judgement Can be conscious efforts

• Response
• Process in events Evaluate significance Can be multiple

Reappraisal

• Examine options
• Can cope or control situation
• Both internal and external resources are key
  • demands and the stress response
  • If can = eustress Re evaluate process Look back at stressors

Models

1. Use models and process
2. Approach related
3. Take emotional effect
4. Has limits.

Coping

• How manages by the individual for all of the needs and manage resources of taxing situations
• Strategy= method to minimize stimulus effect Coping is flexible: how to be effective in different situations and adapt:
• Understand all sides
• Can be personality

Strategy

• Approach - aim to reduce increases
  • Focus towards source
  • accept
  • ask for help or talk Avoid Strategy
  • Evade
  • Actively avoid the source Includes - Denial, substance abuse, avoidance, and procrastination
• Conserves the issue for what it is
• Effective if there is nothing

Exercise

• Give time out for stressor Limits:
  • Maladaptives
  • contributes to problems
• Impairs mental health levels Physical aspect planned to better health and conditioning - Aerobic with energy- activity that works lungs and cardio Requires high o
• Anaerobic
  • Shot burst

1. Increase endurance

• Fitness - to do this is very good Help reduce energy and stress
• Release from body Tension decrease