Computer Organization & Architecture Basics

Computer Organization: Refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
Computer Architecture: High-level design and structure of a computer system, including instruction set architecture (ISA), data types, and I/O mechanisms.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):
- Executes instructions from programs.
- Composed of:
  - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
  - Control Unit (CU): Directs operations of the processor and coordinates activities.
  - Registers: Small, fast storage locations for temporary data.
Memory:
- Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile storage for data and programs currently in use.
- Cache Memory: Faster, smaller memory that stores copies of frequently accessed data from main memory.
- Secondary Storage: Non-volatile storage (e.g., HDDs, SSDs) for long-term data retention.
Input/Output (I/O) Systems:
- Interfaces for communication with external devices (e.g., keyboards, monitors).
- Can be categorized as:
  - Input Devices: (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
  - Output Devices: (e.g., printer, display).
  - Storage Devices: (e.g., hard drives, USB sticks).

Bus: A communication system that transfers data between components.
- Data Bus: Carries data.
- Address Bus: Carries address information.
- Control Bus: Carries control signals.

Defines the set of instructions that a processor can execute.
Types of instructions:
- Data Movement: Transfer data between registers and memory.
- Arithmetic Operations: Perform calculations (e.g., addition, subtraction).
- Logic Operations: Perform logical operations (e.g., AND, OR).
- Control Instructions: Direct the order of execution (e.g., jumps, branches).

Clock Speed: Measured in GHz; indicates how many cycles a CPU can execute per second.
Throughput: Amount of processing done in a given time period.
Latency: Delay before a transfer of data begins following an instruction.

Structure that uses various types of memory to optimize performance:
- Registers: Fastest, smallest.
- Cache: Intermediate speed, capacity.
- Main Memory: Slower, but larger than cache.
- Secondary Storage: Slowest, largest capacity.

Von Neumann Architecture: Single memory space for both instructions and data.
Harvard Architecture: Separate memory spaces for instructions and data, allowing simultaneous access.

Technique used to improve CPU instruction throughput.
Allows multiple instruction phases to be executed concurrently (fetch, decode, execute).

Considerations for efficient operation and longevity of components.
Cooling systems (e.g., fans, heat sinks) are essential for high-performance systems.

Quantum Computing: Utilizes quantum bits for processing, promising exponential speed-ups for certain tasks.
Neuromorphic Computing: Mimics brain structure and function for processing information more like biological systems.

Computer Organization involves the operational units and connections implementing architectural specifications.
Computer Architecture defines the high-level design, including instruction set architecture (ISA), data types, and input/output mechanisms.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): The core component executing program instructions.
- Composed of:
  - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Handles arithmetic and logical operations.
  - Control Unit (CU): Manages processor operations and coordinates activities.
  - Registers: Quick storage for temporary data.
Memory:
- Primary Memory (RAM): Volatile memory for currently used data and programs.
- Cache Memory: Faster memory storing frequently accessed data, enhancing performance.
- Secondary Storage: Non-volatile, long-term storage such as hard drives and SSDs.
Input/Output (I/O) Systems:
- Facilitate communication with external devices.
- Categories include:
  - Input Devices: Allow user input (e.g., keyboard, mouse).
  - Output Devices: Present information (e.g., printer, monitor).
  - Storage Devices: Data retention devices (e.g., USB drives).

Bus: A communication pathway facilitating data transfer among components.
- Data Bus: Transfers actual data.
- Address Bus: Transfers information about data locations.
- Control Bus: Sends control signals to manage operations.

Arrangement leveraging various memory types to optimize performance:
- Registers: Fastest and smallest.
- Cache: Intermediate speed and capacity.
- Main Memory: Slower but larger than cache.
- Secondary Storage: Slowest with the largest capacity.

Von Neumann Architecture: Unified memory for both data and instructions.
Harvard Architecture: Separate memory for data and instructions, allowing simultaneous access.

Technique enhancing CPU instruction throughput by executing multiple instruction phases concurrently (fetch, decode, execute).

Critical for efficient component operation and lifespan, requiring effective cooling systems like fans and heat sinks.

Quantum Computing: Employs quantum bits, offering potential exponential processing speed improvements.
Neuromorphic Computing: Emulates brain structures for more biological-like information processing.