Podcast
Questions and Answers
The speed of a processor is dictated by the pulse __________ produced by the clock.
The speed of a processor is dictated by the pulse __________ produced by the clock.
frequency
Clock signals are generated by a __________ crystal.
Clock signals are generated by a __________ crystal.
quartz
The rate of pulses is known as the __________ rate, or clock speed.
The rate of pulses is known as the __________ rate, or clock speed.
clock
Fetching the instruction from __________ is one of the discrete steps of executing an instruction.
Fetching the instruction from __________ is one of the discrete steps of executing an instruction.
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The number of machine instructions executed for a program is known as the __________ count.
The number of machine instructions executed for a program is known as the __________ count.
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The average __________ per instruction for a program is an important parameter for evaluating performance.
The average __________ per instruction for a program is an important parameter for evaluating performance.
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The number of clock cycles required varies for different types of instructions, such as __________, store, and branch.
The number of clock cycles required varies for different types of instructions, such as __________, store, and branch.
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Let __________ be the number of cycles required for instruction type.
Let __________ be the number of cycles required for instruction type.
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The processor circuitry receives a constant flow of digital __________ pulses.
The processor circuitry receives a constant flow of digital __________ pulses.
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The time interval between pulses is known as the cycle __________.
The time interval between pulses is known as the cycle __________.
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Study Notes
A Brief History of Computers
- The University of Pennsylvania proposed to build a general-purpose computer using vacuum tubes for the army's Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL) in 1943.
- The resulting machine was called ENIAC, which was enormous, weighing 30 tons, occupying 1500 square feet of floor space, and containing more than 18,000 vacuum tubes.
- ENIAC was completed in 1946, too late to be used in the war effort, and continued to operate under BRL management until 1955.
The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
- The task of entering and altering programs for ENIAC was extremely tedious.
- The stored-program concept was developed, which allowed a computer to get its instructions by reading them from memory, and a program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data.
Von Neumann Architecture
- The general structure consists of:
- A main memory, which stores both data and instructions.
- An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data.
- A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be executed.
- Input/output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit.
- The control unit operates the computer by fetching instructions from memory and executing them one at a time.
- Registers include:
- Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit.
- Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address of the word to be stored or retrieved.
- Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed.
- Instruction buffer register (IBR): Holds temporarily the right-hand instruction from a word in memory.
- Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from memory.
- Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations.
The Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
- The integrated circuit exploits the fact that components can be fabricated from a semiconductor such as silicon.
- Many transistors can be produced at the same time on a single wafer of silicon.
- Initially, only a few gates or memory cells could be reliably manufactured and packaged together (small scale integration, SSI).
- As time went on, it became possible to pack more and more components on the same chip, following Moore's Law.
Moore's Law
- Moore observed that the number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year and correctly predicted that this pace would continue into the near future.
- The consequences of Moore's Law are:
- The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged during this period of rapid growth in density.
- Because logic and memory elements are placed closer together on more densely packed chips, the electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed.
- The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety of environments.
- There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
- The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than solder connections.
Performance Evaluation
- In evaluating processor hardware and setting requirements for new systems, performance is one of the key parameters to consider.
- Operations performed by a processor are governed by a system clock, which is typically measured in cycles per second (Hz).
- The execution of an instruction involves a number of discrete steps, including fetching the instruction from memory, decoding the various portions of the instruction, loading and storing data, and performing arithmetic and logical operations.
- The instruction count for a program is defined as the number of machine instructions executed for that program until it runs to completion or for some defined time interval.
- The average cycles per instruction (CPI) for a program is an important parameter for evaluating processor performance.
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Description
A brief history of computers, including the first generation of computers and their evolution. This session covers the basics of computer structure and function.