Comparative Politics: The State

Definitions

• State is a main topic in comparative politics discussions.
• Gianfranco Poggi said comparative analysis looks at arrangements where political activity happens among independent units called polities.
• Over the past 60 years, the number of states increased from 59 to 193.
• Max Webber defined the modern state by its administrative and legal order that can be changed by legislation: Staff activities are organized and controlled by regulations.
• Michael J. Sodaro defines the state as a totality of a country's governmental institutions and officials, along with the laws and procedures structuring activities.

Purpose of the State

• Thomas Hobbes states the primary purpose of the state is to ensure security and order so people can pursue civilization without fear
• John Locke considered the main purpose of the state, is to protect citizens' natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau saw the state's purpose as enabling the people to express their general will, achieved via a small elite making decisions with citizen oversight
• Adam Smith believed the state should promote private enterprise with limited government interference, while also providing a legal system and funding public education and infrastructure.
• Gianfranco Poggi identifies 5 elements typical to a state: monopoly of legitimate violence, territoriality, sovereignty, plurality, and relation with the population.

Monopoly of Legitimate Violence

• States have a single center that controls and uses organized violence within a specific territory.
• The state considers violence by individuals or bodies within its territory illegitimate if done without its permission.
• States that cannot control illegitimate violence in their territory are considered "failed states".
• Sodaro says failed states are unable to govern their entire territory due to loss of coercive power and challenges from domestic groups: These groups routinely ignore laws.

Territoriality

• A vital element of the state is its territory, ensuring it can manage internal conflicts and defend against external threats.
• Relation between a state and its territory is intimate: the territory represents the physical aspect of state identity and historical continuity.

Sovereignty

• Michael J. Sodaro characterized it as the exclusive legal authority of a government over its population and territory
• Sovereignty means the state rejects external interference in its domestic policies.
• A sovereign state recognizes no higher power, operates independently, and is responsible for its own security.
• Most states limit their sovereignty by adhering to a constitution.

Types of Sovereignty

• Internal sovereignty refers to the power to make laws within a territory.
• External sovereignty involves international recognition of a sovereign's jurisdiction under its constitution, enforced by bodies like a Supreme Court.

Plurality

• Modern political environment includes multiple independent states with discrete territories that empower, activate, and secure themselves.
• Each state assumes the existence and equality of others, acknowledging their characteristics.

Relation with the Population

• Population is integral to every state, viewed not just as a demographic entity but as a people.
• The relationship between the state and its population is significant and constitutive.
• Law prevents antisocial behavior and distributes resources.
• Law establishes polities, decides policy, and activates public agencies.

State vs. Society

• State is an ensemble of institutional arrangements and practices that manage political aspects of a bounded society.
• State acts through legislation, jurisdiction, and military action.
• Society involves individuals acting privately, pursuing personal interests independently of political activities.

State Institutions

• Institutions are inseparable from a state because they help determine political outcomes
• Political outcomes are governmental decisions that determine resource allocation, and are affected by a country's institutional framework rather than influential social groups
• Examples of institutions: executive branch, legislature and judiciary
• Michael J. Sodaro identifies five important governmental institutions: the executive, the legislature, the judiciary, the bureaucracy, and the military.

The Executive

• Executive branch shapes policies and is responsible for outcomes.
• Key to differentiate between head of state and head of government.
• Head of state: ceremonial role with little decision-making power.
• Head of government: country's chief political officer, responsible for principal policies.
• The state is not same as government as the state defines the political community, while the government is only the executive branch.

The Legislature

• The legislature creates laws and represents citizens, and may monitor the executive.
• In parliamentary systems, the legislature elects the head of government
• In presidential systems, power is divided more evenly between the executive and legislative branches.

The Judiciary

• The importance of the judiciary varies among states due to the wide range of applications.
• The judiciary's role extends beyond routine tasks, inevitably linking it to the state's political essence.
• The judiciary can be political.
• The judiciarys around the world may differ.
• Some countries have constitutional courts with judicial review power to invalidate unconstitutional laws

The Bureaucracy

• An important part of government, as it advises decision-makers and implements policies.
• The modern state includes ministries, departments, and agencies overseeing various sectors.
• Bureaucracy has grown long-term in many countries, with recent efforts to reduce its proportions.

The Military

• Military establishments can significantly impact institutional authority and have been known to rule directly or influence civil government.
• Coup d'état: forceful takeover of state power by the military, which is often caused by economic stagnation and breakdown of law and order
• Citizenship: rights and obligations from state membership- represents a political and legal status.

Consolidation of Rule

• Between the 12th and 17th centuries, the number of political centers decreased, while each expanded its territories, is estimated to be when Consolidation of rule took place"
• As each grew bigger, they practice rule in a uniform way.
• These territories became more connected and stable.
• The process was a result of military conflicts, as well as royal marriages.
• Military action led to laws regarding state relations.
• It also laid down clear principles of succession to make conflict over territory less likely.
• Succession made the right to rule dependent on legitimate descent.

Developments in Cartography

• These developments allowed states to define geographical borders more accurately.

Rationalization of Rule

• Determined how state power is exercised and is characterized by centralization, hierarchy, and functions.
• Centralization: building of bureaucracies.
• Consolidation of rule forced cooperation with subordinate power holders.
• Rulers began to select individuals to control, fund and reward.
• Institutions such as the police, military, and tax systems were built.
• Bureaucratic units followed a hierarchical structure, and these administrators could gives orders and directives.
• Law can be taught and the knowledge of it could apply to political and administrative operations.
• Function: a centralized system is internally differentiated, with each office responsible for a specific area and corresponding problems.

Expansion of Rule

• Main concerns for a long time were international recognition, interests, and maintaining law/order.
• In the second half of the 19th century, they became more active in social interests and intervened in private concerns, managed social activities based on their judgments for the public interest.
• Legitimacy of political power achieved through mass elections.

State Organization

• States can be be classified by organizational structure.

Unitary States

• Decision-making and revenues are concentrated in central institutions.
• Examples: France and Japan

Federations

• Federations try to combine central government along with authority for admin units below the national level.
• Sub-national units can collect local taxes and elect officials, but they depend on national governments for part of their budget.
• Examples: USA, Germany, and Russia

Confederation

• Confederations have weak central governments and sub-national elements having considerable autonomy.
• The national government does limited tasks, such as defense.
• Examples: Switzerland and United Arab Emirates
• Nation-states contain only the people belonging to its nation.
• Multinational states contain people belonging to more than one nation.
• State is a key concept in comparative politics.