Commas, Clauses, and Adjectives

• Study notes covering unneeded commas, independent and dependent clauses, and adjective basics

Unneeded Commas

• Commas are essential for clarity but overuse can cause confusion
• Incorrect comma placement disrupts sentence flow
• Knowing when to omit commas is crucial for effective writing

Common Situations Where Commas Are Unnecessary

• Between subject and verb: A comma should not separate the subject from its verb
  • Incorrect: "The speedy car, crashed into the wall."
  • Correct: "The speedy car crashed into the wall."
• Between verb and object/complement: Avoid placing a comma between a verb and its direct object or complement
  • Incorrect: "She likes, chocolate and vanilla."
  • Correct: "She likes chocolate and vanilla."
• Before or after prepositions: Commas should not precede or follow prepositions in most cases
  • Incorrect: "He went, to the store."
  • Correct: "He went to the store."
  • Incorrect: "In, the morning, I drink coffee." (If 'in the morning' is not an introductory phrase)
  • Correct: "In the morning, I drink coffee." (Introductory phrase followed by a comma)
• Before or after "that," "which," or "who" in restrictive clauses: Restrictive clauses (essential to the meaning of the sentence) do not require commas
  • Incorrect: "The book, that I borrowed from the library, is due next week."
  • Correct: "The book that I borrowed from the library is due next week."
• Around single words or short phrases of emphasis: Unless they introduce an interruption or nonessential information
  • Incorrect: "He is, certainly, going."
  • Correct: "He is certainly going."
• Before the first or after the last item in a simple series: When a series is short and straightforward, commas at the beginning or end are unnecessary
  • Incorrect: ", Apples, bananas, and oranges, are my favorite fruits."
  • Correct: "Apples, bananas, and oranges are my favorite fruits."
• Before coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) in compound predicates: Only use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that links two independent clauses, not just two parts of a single clause
  • Incorrect: "He ran quickly, and jumped high." (Compound predicate)
  • Correct: "He ran quickly and jumped high." (Compound predicate)
  • Correct: "He ran quickly, and he jumped high." (Two independent clauses)
• With nonessential information that is closely integrated into the sentence: If the information is essential to understanding the sentence, do not offset it with commas
  • Incorrect: "My brother, who lives in Chicago, is a doctor." (If you only have one brother)
  • Correct: "My brother who lives in Chicago is a doctor." (If you have multiple brothers and are specifying which one)

Reviewing Sentences for Unnecessary Commas

• When editing, read each sentence carefully to identify potential comma errors
• Determine if the comma adds clarity or if it interrupts the sentence's flow
• If removing the comma does not change the meaning or cause confusion, it is likely unnecessary

Independent and Dependent Clauses

Independent Clause

• An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a sentence
• It contains a subject and a predicate (verb)
• It expresses a complete thought
• Example: "The dog barked."
  • "The dog" is the subject
  • "barked" is the predicate

Dependent Clause

• A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence
• It also contains a subject and a predicate
• It does not express a complete thought
• It relies on an independent clause to form a complete sentence
• Marked by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun
  • Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, if, since, when, while, etc.
  • Relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that, etc.
• Example: "Because it was raining."
  • "it" is the subject
  • "was raining" is the predicate
  • "Because" is the subordinating conjunction; therefore, it is a dependent clause

Types of Dependent Clauses

• Adjective Clauses: Modify nouns or pronouns
  • "The book that I borrowed from the library is due today." ("that I borrowed from the library" modifies "book")
• Adverb Clauses: Modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs and indicates time, cause, condition, etc.
  • "I will go to the park if the weather is nice." ("if the weather is nice" modifies "will go")
• Noun Clauses: Function as nouns in a sentence; can be subjects, objects, or complements
  • "What she said surprised everyone." ("What she said" is the subject of the sentence)

Combining Independent and Dependent Clauses

• A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
• The order of the clauses affects punctuation
  • When the dependent clause comes before the independent clause a comma is used to separate them
  • "Because it was raining, we stayed inside."
  • When the independent clause comes before the dependent clause, a comma is generally not needed, unless it is a nonrestrictive clause
  • "We stayed inside because it was raining."
  • "My brother, who lives in Chicago, is a doctor." (nonrestrictive clause)

Identifying Clauses in Sentences

• Break down the sentence into its component parts
• Look for subjects and predicates
• Identify any subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns that introduce dependent clauses
• Determine if each clause can stand alone as a sentence

Adjectives Basics

• Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns
• They provide descriptive details, specify qualities, and limit or quantify nouns
• Adjectives enhance clarity in writing

Functions of Adjectives

• Describing Qualities: Adjectives specify the characteristics or attributes of nouns
  • Example: "The blue car" ("blue" describes the color of the car)
• Indicating Size and Shape: They denote dimensions and forms
  • Example: "A large box" ("large" indicates the size of the box)
• Expressing Condition or State: Adjectives can describe the current condition of a noun
  • Example: "The broken window" ("broken" describes the condition of the window)
• Specifying Origin or Type: They identify the source or category of a noun
  • Example: "Italian food" ("Italian" specifies the origin of the food)
• Quantifying Nouns: Adjectives can indicate quantity or amount
  • Example: "Five apples" ("five" quantifies the number of apples)

Types of Adjectives

• Descriptive Adjectives: Most common type; describe the qualities of a noun
  • Examples: "beautiful," "tall," "heavy," "soft"
• Proper Adjectives: Derived from proper nouns; always capitalized
  • Examples: "American," "Victorian," "Shakespearean"
• Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate number or amount
  • Examples: "one," "several," "many," "few"
• Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out specific nouns; include "this," "that," "these," and "those"
  • Example: "This book is mine."
• Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership; include "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," and "their"
  • Example: "My car is parked outside."
• Interrogative Adjectives: Used in questions; include "which" and "what"
  • Example: "Which color do you prefer?"
• Distributive Adjectives: Refer to members of a group individually; include "each," "every," "either," and "neither"
  • Example: "Each student received a certificate."
• Articles: "a," "an," and "the" are technically adjectives (determiners)
  • "A" and "an" are indefinite articles
  • "The" is a definite article

Placement of Adjectives

• Before Nouns (Attributive Position): Most common placement
  • Example: "The old house"
• After Linking Verbs (Predicate Position): Follow verbs like "is," "are," "was," "were," "seems," and "becomes"
  • Example: "The house is old."
• Multiple Adjectives: Can be used to provide more detailed descriptions; follow a general order
  • Order: quantity, value/opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, purpose
  • Example: "The two beautiful, large, old, round, red, Italian, leather dining tables."
• Coordinate adjectives should be separated by commas, but cumulative adjectives should not

Degrees of Comparison

• Positive Degree: The base form of the adjective
  • Example: "big," "small," "interesting"
• Comparative Degree: Used to compare two nouns; formed by adding "-er" or using "more"
  • Examples: "bigger," "more interesting"
• Superlative Degree: Used to compare three or more nouns; formed by adding "-est" or using "most"
  • Examples: "biggest," "most interesting"