Colonization of the New World

The End of Humanist Christian Hope: Violence

• Colonization of the New World led to economic competition among European powers, resulting in violence against indigenous populations.
• The Spanish and Portuguese established empires in Latin America, while the French and English colonized North America.
• In Africa and Asia, colonization was limited to trading posts and exchanges with local populations.

Violence against Indigenous Populations

• European conquests led to violence against indigenous populations, who were subjected to enslavement, disease, and decimation.
• The emperor Charles V and the Pope attempted to suppress the "encomiendas" (land and slave assignments to colonists), but colonists resisted.
• The " Valladolid controversy" (1550) reaffirmed the humanity of indigenous peoples, but it was too late; most indigenous populations were decimated by the 16th century.

The Triangular Trade

• European colonizers needed labor, so they established a lucrative triangular trade: products from Europe (weapons, textiles, alcohol, iron bars) were exchanged in Africa (slaves) and then in America (exotic foods and rare metals).
• 11 million Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic, while 16 million had already been sold to the Muslim world by African tribal chiefs.

Cultural Intolerance

• Forced conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity demonstrated contempt for their cultures.
• Indigenous societies were capable of domesticating nature (e.g., cacao, potatoes, avocados, maize) and had developed writing systems, religious values, astral knowledge, metallurgical techniques, and political organizations.

The Protestant "Reformation" and Wars of Religion (16th century)

Indulgences and the Origin of Protestantism

• The Pope sold "indulgences" to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which allowed the forgiveness of sins.
• The German monk Luther opposed this practice, arguing that the Church was rich enough not to collect money and that the Pope could not substitute for God in granting access to Paradise.

The Spread of Protestantism

• Protestantism spread across Europe, leading to conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.
• Calvin developed the theory of predestination, which held that God chose those who would go to Paradise.
• Protestantism took different forms: Lutheranism in the North, Calvinism in Switzerland, Scotland, and southern France, and Anglicanism in England.

Violence and Wars of Religion

• Tensions and violence erupted in countries where Catholicism and Protestantism coexisted.
• The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris was one of the bloodiest episodes, and Protestants also used violence against Catholics.

Three Political Solutions during the Ancien Régime (17th and 18th centuries)

The English Solution

• The English invented modern democracy to avoid further wars of religion.
• They established a parliamentary monarchy, where the king ruled with the consent of Parliament, elected by the population.
• Texts like the Habeas Corpus (1679) and the Declaration of Rights (1689) guaranteed religious freedom.

The French Solution

• In contrast, the French solution was an authoritarian regime, known as absolutism.
• The king, considering himself a representative of God on earth, controlled all aspects of daily life, including religion.
• The French monarchs imposed Catholicism as the only religion, banning Protestantism.

The Solution in the Belgian and German Territories

• In the 16th century, the Belgian territories belonged to a larger territory governed by the powerful Habsburg family.
• After decades of religious conflicts, the territory was divided in 1648: the northern provinces became the independent United Provinces (modern-day Netherlands), while the southern provinces remained under Spanish Catholic rule.
• A similar solution was applied in the German Empire, where each principality could choose to allow Protestantism or Catholicism on its territory.
• Peace was finally restored in the 17th century after the devastating Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).