Collective Action Problem and Cooperation Principles

Collective Action Problem

• States face difficulty collaborating to serve their collective interests while prioritizing their individual interests.
• Example: Climate change requires global action but nations also prioritize economic growth through fossil fuel use.
• Prisoner's dilemma illustrates collective action issues: two suspects face consequences for cooperating or defecting, leading to a suboptimal outcome for both.
• Individual rationality leads to collective irrationality: it's always in a player's best interest to defect, regardless of the other player's action, resulting in a worse outcome for both.

Principles for Cooperation

• Dominance: establishes a power hierarchy to control states, similar to government but without formal authority.
• Reciprocity: rewards cooperation and punishes selfishness, based on mutual benefit.
• Identity: relies on shared identity and collective interest, leading individuals to prioritize group goals over personal interests.

International Relations and Cooperation

• Realism, liberalism, constructivism, and critical theories offer different approaches to address the collective action problem using the principles of dominance, reciprocity, and identity.

Peace of Westphalia

• Established the principle of sovereign states, defining international relations from the 17th century onwards.
• Recognized the impossibility of a unified Roman Empire in Europe, leading to the acceptance of a system of multiple, independent states.
• Defined sovereignty with both internal and external dimensions.
• Internal sovereignty: Individual states have complete authority over their territory, with no internal challenges allowed.
• External sovereignty: No other state can interfere in the internal affairs of another state, known as the principle of non-interference.
• The Peace of Westphalia also acknowledged religious and political pluralism.
• Recognized multiple religions rather than a single "true" one.
• Accepted that Europe would be a system of states, each with complete authority within its borders and none outside.
• State sovereignty is not inherent but comes through recognition from other sovereign states.
• Recognized states gain legitimacy and survival chances through official recognition.
• Despite violations throughout history, the Westphalian system remains the foundation of international affairs.

International System Change

• Change is a persistent feature of international affairs, not unique to the modern era.
• The Westphalian system has undergone many significant changes throughout history.
• The 20th century witnessed major transformations in the international system, shaping the modern world.
• Different historical periods within the Westphalian system have distinct events and characteristics.

Realism in International Relations

• Realists posit that state behavior is driven by rationality, meaning states act in a way that maximizes their self-interest.
• While realism is often debated, the core assumption is that states have ordered preferences and can analyze costs and benefits of policy choices to maximize their utility.
• This assumption is not about perfect decision-making; realists recognize states make mistakes.
• Realism emphasizes that state actions are largely determined by external conditions, thus different leaders in similar situations would likely act similarly.
• The "security dilemma" is a key concept in realism. It describes a situation where states arm themselves in response to perceived threats, leading to an overall decrease in security for all involved due to increased potential for conflict.
• Realists argue that states are rational actors in an anarchic system, meaning they prioritize national security even if it leads to collective irrationality.
• Overcoming the security dilemma is a difficult task because there is no global authority to enforce agreements.
• Critiques of realism point to its limitations in a world with increasingly complex interactions between states and non-state actors, arguing it neglects the role of other actors, like NGOs and international organizations.
• Realism's emphasis on state-centric analysis and its pessimistic view of human nature are often challenged.
• Critics argue that realism oversimplifies the international system and gives undue importance to military and strategic issues.

Liberalism

• Focuses on the individual’s ability to contribute to the overall benefit of the group
• Views human nature as progressive and capable of cooperation due to reason
• Recognizes the importance of both state and non-state actors
• Emphasizes domestic analysis and the competitive nature of society
• Sees international politics as an extension of domestic politics
• Views international institutions as mechanisms for cooperation and integration
• Emphasizes the concept of "complex interdependence" where states are mutually dependent on each other

Neoliberal Institutionalism

• Shares realist views on the anarchic nature of the international system and states as rational actors
• Argues that cooperation can be achieved through international institutions that enforce reciprocity
• Believes that states can mitigate the security dilemma through arms control agreements

Constructivism

• Focuses on the role of social construction in shaping international relations
• Argues that ideas, norms, and identities influence state behavior
• Emphasizes the importance of language and interaction in the construction of meaning
• Challenges the notion of objective, fixed interests by highlighting the role of social context in shaping state preferences
• Emphasizes the role of norms in constraining state behavior

Criticism of Liberalism

• Liberal optimism about human nature and the possibility of cooperation is questioned
• The emphasis on international institutions is criticized for neglecting the structural anarchy of the international system
• Liberal theory is accused of overplaying the importance of globalization and non-state actors

Critical Theory in International Relations

• Critical theory emerged as a response to the “first debate” in international relations (realism vs. liberalism) and challenged scientific methods in the “second debate.”
• It focuses on epistemology and ontology – how we know and what we can know.
• Critical theorists argue that truly value-free analysis is impossible and emphasize the importance of acknowledging our own perspectives and biases.

Marxism in International Relations

• Marxism, rooted in the 19th century, examines human development through cyclical eras where ideas clash, creating new and improved ones.
• It highlights class struggle and worker alienation within capitalist systems, arguing that liberal markets cannot meet the needs of all.
• Vladimir Lenin, in Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism, extended Marxist theory internationally, predicting the eventual triumph of socialism due to capitalism’s excesses.
• Antonio Gramsci emphasized the influence of dominant ideologies on research and argued for critical theories that challenge prevailing paradigms.

Feminism in International Relations

• Feminism, originating in the 19th century suffrage movement, challenges the societal constructs of gender roles and their impact on international affairs.
• It differentiates between sex (biological) and gender (socially constructed) and explores the ways in which gender shapes our understanding of the world.
• Key branches of feminist theory include:
  • Standpoint feminism: knowledge is shaped by women's lived experiences, highlighting differences due to inequality.
  • Liberal feminism: seeks to include women in existing structures, believing equality can be achieved without fundamental change.
  • Post-positivist feminism: deconstructs international relations theory to expose gendered biases and challenges attempts to integrate women into masculine structures.

Postmodernism in International Relations

• Postmodernism emphasizes deconstruction and the subjective nature of meaning in international relations theory.
• It critiques the objectivity of social science research and emphasizes the influence of individual perspectives and motives on analysis.
• Postmodernists seek to loosen the constraints of established concepts and terminology to challenge conventional interpretations of power, authority, and governance.
• While insightful for understanding the complexities of theory and meaning, postmodernism has limited practical application in analyzing the current international system or formulating policy.

International Security

• International security is about the conditions caused by insecurity.
• States in the international system are primarily concerned about self-preservation, without which other goals become impossible.
• Insecurity arises from threats to important values: security, material welfare, and identity.
• Threats can be military, economic, political, cultural, or environmental.
• Security and conflict are complex dynamics involving more than just declaring war or using armed force.
• Conflict frequency has increased:
  • Historical studies record approximately 275 violent conflicts between 1480 and World War II.
  • This translates to roughly one war every two years.
  • The period between World War II and today has recorded over 160 conflicts, averaging over two and a half wars annually.
• Since World War II, most wars have occurred in the developing world, while developed regions like Western Europe and North America have seen less violent conflict.
• Reasons for war remain largely unchanged: state creation, territorial disputes, defense, regime maintenance, and ideological conflict.
• International security remains a vital aspect of the study of the international system.

Explore the challenges of collective action when states prioritize individual interests over shared goals. Delve into concepts such as the prisoner's dilemma, dominance, reciprocity, and identity as factors that influence cooperation among nations, especially in contexts like climate change.