Cold War: Origins and Ideological Clash

• The Cold War was a struggle between the USA and the USSR, emerging as superpowers after WWII.
• The Cold War lasted from 1945 to 1990.
• The USA had the support of western countries, while the USSR had the support of communist governments in Eastern Europe.
• It was a clash between competing countries, social, economic, and political systems.
• The Cold War was an ideological clash between communism and capitalism.
• It never developed into an actual war between the USA and USSR but involved "proxy wars."
• The Cold War caused political crises and military conflicts.

Origins of the Cold War

• Distrust existed between the USA and the USSR since the Bolsheviks' communist takeover in 1917.
• The USA sent troops against the Bolsheviks in the Russian civil war (1918-1921) to reinstate the Tsar.
• The USA and USSR united as allies against Hitler during WWII despite underlying tensions.
• The "Grand Alliance" between the USA, USSR, and Britain was uneasy.

Yalta Conference (February 1945)

• Allied leaders (Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill) met in Yalta to decide the fate of Germany and Nazi-controlled eastern European countries.
• Germany was divided into 4 zones of occupation (USSR, USA, Britain, France) until ready for independence.
• Formerly Nazi-controlled eastern European areas would hold free elections.
• The conference was initially successful.

Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945)

• Tensions between the USA and USSR surfaced as Germany was defeated.
• The meeting at Potsdam did not go well, as the Soviet army controlled much of eastern Europe.
• Stalin kept Soviet troops in Eastern European countries after liberating them from Nazi control and annexed the Baltic republics.
• Stalin set up a communist government in Poland, ignoring the majority's wishes.
• President Truman replaced Roosevelt and was more anti-communist and distrustful of Stalin.
• The USA developed the atomic bomb and didn't inform Stalin, causing fury.
• Churchill was replaced by Attlee, leading to increased suspicion between Stalin and Truman.
• Disagreement arose about Germany; Stalin wanted reparations to cripple Germany, while Truman didn't want a bitter Germany.
• Germany was divided into zones (USSR administered the eastern zone, the USA, Britain, and France administered the western zones).
• Berlin, situated in the Soviet zone, was also divided into four zones.
• It was agreed that Germany would remain united and the four powers would work together economically.

Spheres of Influence

• After WWII, both superpowers sought to strengthen control over parts of Europe, with the USSR in the east and the USA in the west.
• Stalin created satellite states in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and East Germany by ensuring Soviet-friendly governments came to power.
• The agreed-upon free elections at Yalta did not occur.
• The communist parties were supported during the rise to power.
• Opposition was suppressed in an attempt to muscle out competing parties.
• Churchill described it as communist parties "being raised to power far beyond their numbers."
• The communist coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948 increased western suspicions.
• The USA, Britain, and France resented Soviet dominance and feared communist governments in Greece, Italy, and France.
• Churchill warned of an "Iron Curtain" dividing Europe in 1946.

The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan

• The expansion of Soviet control led to a shift in American foreign policy from isolationism to activeInvolvement.
• The USA adopted a policy of containment to limit the spread of communism.
• Events in Greece and Turkey prompted the USA to act.
• A civil war in Greece was ongoing between communist guerillas and the Greek government.
• A similar situation occurred in Turkey, with Soviets supposedly supporting communists.
• In March 1947, Truman requested permission to send money and military aid to countries threatened by communism.
• Truman then stated that Greece would fall to communism without US aid.
• This speech formed the Truman Doctrine and argued that the US must support people resisting subjugation.
• US aid was promptly sent to Greece and Turkey, enabling them to defeat communist guerilla forces.
• Stalin was infuriated by this US aid.
• The Marshall Plan was another containment measure, with Truman believing that more than military aid was needed to prevent communism.
• US Secretary of State George Marshall was sent to Europe to assess its economic situation.
• Marshall reported that Europe was devastated.
• The Marshall Plan involved US Congress providing $17 billion in aid to western European countries to help rebuild.
• The aim would be to prevent communism from exploiting poverty and chaos.
• Marshall Aid aided in the recovery of countries like Britain, France, and Germany.

Soviet Response to Marshall Aid

• Soviet leader Joseph Stalin criticized Marshall Aid as "dollar diplomacy."
• He prohibited Soviet satellite states from accepting the aid, further dividing east and west.
• In 1947, Stalin created the Cominform to coordinate communist parties in Eastern Europe and maintain control over satellite countries.
• He ensured communist leaders' loyalty, replacing those who were not loyal.
• Communist parties in France and Italy were also members of Cominform.
• In 1949, the USSR formed Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Aid) in the eastern bloc, later joined by Cuba and Vietnam.

The Berlin Crises (1948 to 1961)

• Germany was the first place where Cold War tensions escalated.
• Berlin was divided into 4 zones and situated within the Soviet zone.
• Berlin was considered to be a symbol of freedom behind the Iron Curtain.
• Despite agreeing on a united Germany at Potsdam, the Allied leaders introduced differing political and economic systems in their zones.
• A communist dictatorship was established in the Soviet zone, with nationalized industry and restructured agriculture into collective farms.
• Economic recovery was slow, as the government rejected American aid, and the USSR forced East Germany to pay reparations.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-1949)

• The three western sectors of Berlin were over 160 kilometers from the western zones of Germany.
• The western currency became the dominant currency in Berlin, devaluing the Soviet currency.
• Stalin saw this as economic warfare and believed the western powers would never withdraw from Berlin.
• In June 1948, the USSR blockaded all routes that linked Berlin to the west, including roads, railways, and canals.
• West Berlin (2.5 million citizens) were cut off from supplies and contact with western zones to garner support for the USSR.
• The USSR sent generous rations into West Berlin to try and gain Soviet control over the Berlin.
• The West avoided war and military action during the blockade.
• The Berlin Airlift was initiated to supply the western sectors of Berlin by air.
• The USA supplied food, fuel, building materials, and medical supplies for eleven months.
• In May 1949, Stalin reopened the land routes realizing the West would not surrender.
• Berlin became a symbol of Cold War tensions and a potential flashpoint.
• Germany was formally divided into two separate states after this crisis.
• The three western zones united into the German Federal Republic (West Germany) in May 1949, with Bonn as its capital.
• West Berlin was integrated into the West German government, and the first leader was Konrad Adenauer.
• In October 1949, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) with East Berlin as its capital and Walter Ulbricht as the first leader.
• The goal of keeping a united Germany failed, leading to Germany's division for the next 40 years.

1953 Uprising in East Berlin

• In 1953, following Stalin's death, worker protests started in East Berlin and spread throughout East Germany.
• Workers demanded more economic and political freedom, unionize with West Germany, end communism, and withdraw Soviet forces.
• The Soviet army intervened with troops who executed over 600 East Germans, and 300,000 fled to West Germany
• The uprising led the East German government to make reforms, and the USSR gave East Germany more independence.

Further Tensions Over Berlin (1958-1960)

• In 1958, the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev demanded the West hand over Berlin to East Germany.
• The West didn't act on the demands, and Khrushchev didn't act to enforce them either.
• Khrushchev's action showed that things were getting better between the US and the USSR.
• In 1960 Khrushchev had planned to meet with the US President Eisenhower in Paris to discuss Berlin's future.
• However, the USSR cancelled this meeting when an American spy plane was shot down while flying over the USSR.
• The plane was taking photographs of military places and installations in the Soviet Union. At first the US denied any involvement.
• When the USSR produced the equipment, the pilot, and other evidence, the US admitted involvement.
• Eisenhower refused to apologize, resulting in Khrushchev storming out of the Paris peace talks.
• Tensions worsened again between the superpowers, the fate of Berlin was not resolved, and the US received criticism for sensitive actions at this tense time.

Building of the Berlin Wall

• From 1949, more than three million East Germans had fled to the West, with those that left being highly skilled, this was a loss for East Germany.
• By July of 1961, ten thousand people each week fled to the Western side of Germany due to greater freedoms and a higher standard of living.
• The USSR saw this loss of people as an issue that challenged the control of the Soviet Union over Europe and aimed to stop skilled persons moving to the west of Berlin, and the western part of Germany in general.
• In the summer of 1961, leaders in East Germany backed by the Soviet Union divided Berlin in half with a massive structure.
• As a response to the building of the Wall, The West was powerless to prevent and stop the construction.
• West Berlin continued as an enclave of capitalism and democracy, remaining an "island" that was enclosed by East Germany.