Cognitive Tools for Learning

• The book discusses using computers as cognitive tools to promote meaningful learning and critical thinking in schools.

Introduction

• The book advocates for shifting from traditional computer usage in schools to using specific software applications as cognitive tools.
• Cognitive tools require students to think critically to represent their knowledge.
• Effective computer use involves accessing, interpreting, organizing, and representing personal knowledge.
• Just as carpenters need tools to build furniture, students need intellectual tools to construct meaning.

Chapter 1: What are Cognitive Tools?

• Traditionally, technology's effects are evaluated without considering the student's influence on the process, but the book argues for a partnership.
• Cognitive tools enhance both the computer's and the student's capabilities, resulting in greater learning.
• The chapter establishes the conceptual foundation for using various cognitive tools.
• The history of computers and learning can be looked at in three phases: learning from computers, learning about computers, and learning with computers.

Learning from Computers: Computer-Assisted Instruction

• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) involves the computer teaching the student with pre-defined competencies.

Drill and Practice

• In the 70s and 80s, drill and practice programs were common forms of CAI.
• These electronic worksheets provided problems, often math-based, with feedback on accuracy, which rewarded correct answers.
• Based on behaviorist principles, the reward increased the likelihood of students providing the correct answer to a stimulus.
• Although strategies improved, behaviorism doesn't support the complex thinking for meaningful learning, problem-solving, and original ideas.
• Drill and practice's best justification was automatism, where students need to perform lower-level subskills automatically to master higher-level skills.
• Computers are patient and precise instructors for gaining automatism, but don't facilitate skill transfer to new situations.
• The programs were easy for publishers to produce and met school administrators' desires for innovation.
• Drill and practice programs represented one of the earliest and least significant forms of teaching, rote learning.
• The author believes these programs are not the most effective use of technology, though they helped some students.

Tutorials

• Tutorials emerged from the cognitive revolution and tried to address individual differences by helping learners.
• The tutorial model presented text or graphics then assessed the student's comprehension making comparisons to stored answers.
• Correct answers were rewarded, while incorrect answers led to remedial information being presented.
• Some remediation strategies were sophisticated, with software giving instructions based on error.
• Tutorials consist of presentation-response-feedback cycles, adapting to the learner's level and offering options.
• Despite advancements, anticipating all responses and providing suitable instruction is practically impossible.
• Tutorials don't allow students to build meaning but only present an interpretation of the world hindering reflection and evaluation.
• Often imparting inert knowledge because it can't be applied, it doesn't encourage student determination.

Intelligent Tutoring Systems

• The most sophisticated form of CAI is intelligent tutoring systems (ITS).
• ITS were developed by AI researchers to teach problem-solving and procedural knowledge, using models of students, experts, and tutorials.
• ITS compares how a students act when solving problems to an expert model providing instruction when there are discrepancies.
• ITS have more intelligence than tutorials and respond better to student misinterpretations.
• Despite their power, issues arise with expert/student modeling procedures.
• Student models cannot fully specify how a student will try to solve a problem.
• Canned text lacks the sensitivity of human tutors.
• A key question is whether computers should test student understanding, since reflection is more important to learn than testing.
• Good ITS are technically difficult and expensive to implement and few tutor publicly.
• Modeling methods are only useful for a type limited knowledge.
• Cognitive tools let students define objectives, determine strategies, and monitor learning encouraging independent student responsibilities.

Learning about Computers: Computer Literacy

• Microcomputers proliferated in the 80s, leading educators to question their use eventually concluding on computer literacy and programming.
• The important thing was that students learn about computers and programming.
• Luehrmann said that literacy is the "capacity to do something productive with the computer".
• In reality only the parts of the computer was learned, based "on the strong conviction that vocabulary implies knowledge".
• It's a mistake to think memorizing parts and functions leads to understanding and use.
• Questions evaluating computer vocabulary was a measurement of mechanics, but didn't evaluate critical thinking around the machines.

Learning with Computers: A Constructivist Perspective

• The most recent phase rejects CAI and computer literacy, shifting technology's role from teacher to partner.
• It emphasizes that technology supports student meaning-construction.
• Students learn with technologies through knowledge construction, exploration, practice, conversation and more.
• Computers are intellectual partners supporting learning through reflection with cognitive development.

Cognitive Tools for Constructivist Learning

• The goal is to provide conceptual foundations for understanding the concept rather than cause confusion.

Definitions of Cognitive Tools

• Cognitive tools stimulate critical thinking and higher-order learning by functioning as intellectual student partners.
• They include databases, semantic networks, spreadsheets, expert systems, system modeling tools, micro worlds and more.
• Cognitive tools reorganize how students think making computers more accessible.
• Computers can culturally define function, tools require a skilled operator for functionality.
• Computers can amplify cognitive functioning (Pea 1985).
• Cognitive tools are generalizable software tools to implement and facilitate cognitive processes (Kommers, Jonassen & Mayes, 1992).
• Cognitive tools support thinking by users that enhances their processes of thinking (Derry, 1990).
• Derry stated cognitive tools use mental efforts of the students.
• Perkins (1993) argued that students used the tools without thinking.
• Conversely, learning with cognitive tools requires students to think harder, promoting meaning construction.
• Cognitive tool is modeling skills of critical thinking.
• Students think critically for structures (chapter 4) or base system knowledge (chapter 6).
• Scaffold critical thinking, they must be active, supporting thought as they are already acting.
• Figure 1 involves students in creating new knowledge instead of a teacher's presentations of information, involving the active processes from cognitive student partners.

Why Use Cognitive Tools?

• Cognitive tools help users overcome their limits of knowledge and capacity of processing and memorization.

Theoretical Reasons for Using Cognitive Tools

• Cognitive tools make learning more effective and increase memory over time in new situations.

Significant Learning

• Significant learning involves being active (manipulative or observant), constructive (articulately or reflexive), intentional (reflexive or regulator), authentic (complex or contextual), and cooperative (collaboratively or conversation).

Building Information

• The constructivist learning theory relies on tools to organize information when they construct their interpretation of the world.

Reflective Thinking

• Donald Norman (1993) made the distinction of two different processes of the human mind using experiential (the real world) and reflective thought (deliberation).

Tools of Cognitive Partnership

• Computers can function to work with another while learning.
• According to Perkins the environment can be supported.
• Responsibilities can be assigned and thought processes work together.

Supported Thinking

• Using technologies with students expands learning capabilities.
• Perspectives of Vygotsky emphasize reorganizing cognition by thought.
• Learning represents "cognitive scaffolds" to transform and use thought processes.

Practical Reasons for Using Cognitive Tools

• Support that they are usable within education.

Lack of Software

• Traditional software is ineffective.

Cost of Computers

• It is important that simulations are effective.

Efficiency

• With almost all schools using applications, it has greatly improved.

Evaluate Software as a Tool

• Application tools show constant use more than the software.

Cognitive Tool is a Productive tool

• A useful tool can assist in helping learning with the students by being more efficient.

Cognitive tool Vs Tool use of information

• Access to WWW from the internet could be supportive for using tools on the internet.
• Computer WWW requires high-performance to aid the functions of student information.

Criteria for evaluating Cognitive tools

• Criteria has a different tool of cognitive to work better.

Tools on the Computer Base

• Tools of cognitive must be completed on the computer so that there's better understanding of how to work it on the computer.

Use Available Applications

• Applications help cognitive needs on the computer.

Reasonable Price

• With cognitive tools, the tools must be affordable.