Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes the primary function of the brain?
Which of the following best describes the primary function of the brain?
- To produce hormones that regulate growth and development.
- To regulate body temperature.
- To filter toxins from the bloodstream.
- To detect and respond to the environment by integrating inputs and controlling outputs. (correct)
In the context of brain development, what is meant by the phrase 'additive process'?
In the context of brain development, what is meant by the phrase 'additive process'?
- The accumulation of inputs which eventually overload the brain.
- The brain's ability to repair itself after injury.
- Evolutionary changes in brain structure and function build upon existing morphology. (correct)
- The capacity of the brain to enhance sensory perceptions.
Which of the following CNS morphologies is the most primitive, lacking centralization or cephalization?
Which of the following CNS morphologies is the most primitive, lacking centralization or cephalization?
- Nerve net. (correct)
- Single nerve cord.
- Bilateral nerve cords.
- Dorsal neural tube.
What is the primary function of sensory neurons in organisms with a nerve net?
What is the primary function of sensory neurons in organisms with a nerve net?
Which of the following is an example of an organism that exhibits radial symmetry and possesses a nerve net?
Which of the following is an example of an organism that exhibits radial symmetry and possesses a nerve net?
What evolutionary advantage is conferred by cephalization, as seen in bilateral nerve cords?
What evolutionary advantage is conferred by cephalization, as seen in bilateral nerve cords?
In flatworms, what is the function of the cerebral ganglia?
In flatworms, what is the function of the cerebral ganglia?
What behavior is impeded when the cerebral ganglia of a flatworm are removed?
What behavior is impeded when the cerebral ganglia of a flatworm are removed?
What is the function of the tritocerebrum in arthropods?
What is the function of the tritocerebrum in arthropods?
In chordates, what is the defining characteristic of the dorsal neural tube?
In chordates, what is the defining characteristic of the dorsal neural tube?
Which evolutionary trend is observed in the nervous systems of chordates?
Which evolutionary trend is observed in the nervous systems of chordates?
Which is an example of a reflex that is retained by humans?
Which is an example of a reflex that is retained by humans?
What is the significance of the decussation of pathways in the CNS?
What is the significance of the decussation of pathways in the CNS?
What is the axial twist theory?
What is the axial twist theory?
During neurulation, what structure induces the formation of the neural tube?
During neurulation, what structure induces the formation of the neural tube?
From which embryonic layer does the neural plate originate?
From which embryonic layer does the neural plate originate?
What is the role of neural crest cells during development?
What is the role of neural crest cells during development?
Which of the following correctly lists the primary brain vesicles?
Which of the following correctly lists the primary brain vesicles?
What are flexures in the developing neural tube?
What are flexures in the developing neural tube?
Which primary brain vesicle gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon?
Which primary brain vesicle gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon?
Which secondary brain vesicle gives rise to the cerebellum and pons?
Which secondary brain vesicle gives rise to the cerebellum and pons?
Which of the following adult brain structures is derived from the mesencephalon?
Which of the following adult brain structures is derived from the mesencephalon?
The fourth ventricle is associated with which secondary vesicle?
The fourth ventricle is associated with which secondary vesicle?
During the development of the telencephalon, what shape does it form as it grows dorsally and caudally?
During the development of the telencephalon, what shape does it form as it grows dorsally and caudally?
What is the significance of the 'crumple zones' related to brain flexures during development?
What is the significance of the 'crumple zones' related to brain flexures during development?
Which of the following is the correct description of the Alar Plate?
Which of the following is the correct description of the Alar Plate?
During the development of the spinal cord, what stimulates dorsal-ventral organization?
During the development of the spinal cord, what stimulates dorsal-ventral organization?
Proximally, the Bipolar Sensory Neurons in the Dorsal Root Ganglia project into which structure?
Proximally, the Bipolar Sensory Neurons in the Dorsal Root Ganglia project into which structure?
What distinguishes a myelocele among neural tube defects?
What distinguishes a myelocele among neural tube defects?
Which neural tube defect involves herniation of meninges and nervous tissue?
Which neural tube defect involves herniation of meninges and nervous tissue?
What is unique about spina bifida occulta compared to other forms of spina bifida?
What is unique about spina bifida occulta compared to other forms of spina bifida?
A researcher is studying a genetic mutation that affects the migration of neural crest cells. Which of the following developmental processes would be MOST directly affected?
A researcher is studying a genetic mutation that affects the migration of neural crest cells. Which of the following developmental processes would be MOST directly affected?
If the rhombencephalon did not differentiate properly, which of the following structures would be most directly affected?
If the rhombencephalon did not differentiate properly, which of the following structures would be most directly affected?
Consider an embryo in which the process of neurulation has been disrupted. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence?
Consider an embryo in which the process of neurulation has been disrupted. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence?
Imagine a novel organism is discovered that has a brain organized in such a way that the left hemisphere controls the left side of the body, contrary to the typical contralateral organization. According to the concepts discussed, which of the following might be absent in this organism's brain?
Imagine a novel organism is discovered that has a brain organized in such a way that the left hemisphere controls the left side of the body, contrary to the typical contralateral organization. According to the concepts discussed, which of the following might be absent in this organism's brain?
A researcher discovers a new chemical that, when applied to developing embryos, prevents the formation of the notochord. What aspect of neural development would be MOST directly affected? This is a very difficult question
A researcher discovers a new chemical that, when applied to developing embryos, prevents the formation of the notochord. What aspect of neural development would be MOST directly affected? This is a very difficult question
A scientist is studying a rare genetic disorder that results in the absence of rhombomeres during embryonic development. Considering the role of rhombomeres, which of the following structures or processes would MOST likely be affected in individuals with this disorder? This is an insanely difficult question
A scientist is studying a rare genetic disorder that results in the absence of rhombomeres during embryonic development. Considering the role of rhombomeres, which of the following structures or processes would MOST likely be affected in individuals with this disorder? This is an insanely difficult question
Which anatomical landmark is described as being 'under frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes'?
Which anatomical landmark is described as being 'under frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes'?
What is the anatomical term for structures located towards the 'beak or nose' of the brain?
What is the anatomical term for structures located towards the 'beak or nose' of the brain?
Which of the following is primarily composed of axons connecting processing units within the central nervous system?
Which of the following is primarily composed of axons connecting processing units within the central nervous system?
Which term describes the ridges of the cerebral cortex?
Which term describes the ridges of the cerebral cortex?
Which anatomical feature does the lateral fissure terminate within?
Which anatomical feature does the lateral fissure terminate within?
Which gyri does the anterior and ascending limbs of the lateral fissure divide the inferior frontal gyrus into?
Which gyri does the anterior and ascending limbs of the lateral fissure divide the inferior frontal gyrus into?
In the cerebral cortex, which layer is known as the major output area?
In the cerebral cortex, which layer is known as the major output area?
Which type of cortical cells primarily receive afferent signals?
Which type of cortical cells primarily receive afferent signals?
In primary motor cortex, which layer is enlarged and which is reduced compared to primary sensory cortex?
In primary motor cortex, which layer is enlarged and which is reduced compared to primary sensory cortex?
What is the primary function associated with Brodmann areas?
What is the primary function associated with Brodmann areas?
What is the main distinction between primary and association areas in the cortex?
What is the main distinction between primary and association areas in the cortex?
Which type of cortex is characterized by having a transition zone between 3 and 6 layers?
Which type of cortex is characterized by having a transition zone between 3 and 6 layers?
Which cortical type is primarily involved in higher-order processing and integrating information?
Which cortical type is primarily involved in higher-order processing and integrating information?
Which type of cortical area processes multiple sensory and/or motor modalities?
Which type of cortical area processes multiple sensory and/or motor modalities?
Damage to Broca's area is most likely to result in impairment of which function?
Damage to Broca's area is most likely to result in impairment of which function?
What is the primary role of subcortical tracts?
What is the primary role of subcortical tracts?
Which type of subcortical tract connects cortical regions within the same hemisphere?
Which type of subcortical tract connects cortical regions within the same hemisphere?
Which of the following association fibres connects the frontal lobe with the occipital lobe?
Which of the following association fibres connects the frontal lobe with the occipital lobe?
What is the role of commissural fibers in the brain?
What is the role of commissural fibers in the brain?
Which part of the corpus callosum connects the occipital lobes?
Which part of the corpus callosum connects the occipital lobes?
What type of fibers project from the cortex, and are neither association nor commissural?
What type of fibers project from the cortex, and are neither association nor commissural?
In the context of projection fibers, what structure relates the internal capsule to the corona radiata.
In the context of projection fibers, what structure relates the internal capsule to the corona radiata.
Which structure serves as a relay station for nearly all sensory information?
Which structure serves as a relay station for nearly all sensory information?
Which sensory modality relates to the medial geniculate nucleus?
Which sensory modality relates to the medial geniculate nucleus?
What is the function of the uncinate fasciculus?
What is the function of the uncinate fasciculus?
Which area of the brain is responsible for integrating multiple sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing, to create a cohesive perception of the environment?
Which area of the brain is responsible for integrating multiple sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing, to create a cohesive perception of the environment?
Which subcortical structure is responsible for relaying visual information from the retina to the visual cortex?
Which subcortical structure is responsible for relaying visual information from the retina to the visual cortex?
Which subcortical tract directly facilitates communication between Broca's area and Wernicke's area?
Which subcortical tract directly facilitates communication between Broca's area and Wernicke's area?
A patient exhibits impaired executive function and difficulty with attention following a stroke. Which area of the cortex is MOST likely affected?
A patient exhibits impaired executive function and difficulty with attention following a stroke. Which area of the cortex is MOST likely affected?
A lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum would MOST directly disrupt communication between which areas?
A lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum would MOST directly disrupt communication between which areas?
A researcher is investigating a novel drug that selectively enhances the activity of stellate cells in cortical layer IV. Which of the following processes would be MOST directly influenced by this drug?
A researcher is investigating a novel drug that selectively enhances the activity of stellate cells in cortical layer IV. Which of the following processes would be MOST directly influenced by this drug?
A patient presents with prosopagnosia, an inability to recognize faces. Which of the following cortical areas is MOST likely damaged?
A patient presents with prosopagnosia, an inability to recognize faces. Which of the following cortical areas is MOST likely damaged?
After suffering a traumatic brain injury, a patient exhibits impaired spatial perception and difficulty navigating familiar environments. Which cortical area is MOST likely affected?
After suffering a traumatic brain injury, a patient exhibits impaired spatial perception and difficulty navigating familiar environments. Which cortical area is MOST likely affected?
Following a stroke, a patient has difficulty coordinating movements and maintaining balance. Imaging reveals damage to projection fibers passing through the internal capsule. Based on this information, which structure is MOST likely affected by the stroke?
Following a stroke, a patient has difficulty coordinating movements and maintaining balance. Imaging reveals damage to projection fibers passing through the internal capsule. Based on this information, which structure is MOST likely affected by the stroke?
A researcher is studying the effects of a neurotoxin that selectively destroys myelinated axons in the brain, especially in the subcortical tracts. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence of this neurotoxin's effects?
A researcher is studying the effects of a neurotoxin that selectively destroys myelinated axons in the brain, especially in the subcortical tracts. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence of this neurotoxin's effects?
A patient suffers damage to the arcuate fasciculus. Which of the following cognitive deficits is the patient MOST likely to experience?
A patient suffers damage to the arcuate fasciculus. Which of the following cognitive deficits is the patient MOST likely to experience?
A researcher discovers a genetic mutation that affects the development of the corpus callosum, resulting in a significantly smaller splenium. This mutation would MOST directly impact communication between which of the following regions?
A researcher discovers a genetic mutation that affects the development of the corpus callosum, resulting in a significantly smaller splenium. This mutation would MOST directly impact communication between which of the following regions?
A neurosurgeon is performing a procedure near the internal capsule and wants to avoid damaging sensory pathways from the body to the cortex. Which anatomical landmark would BEST guide the surgeon in identifying the location of these pathways?
A neurosurgeon is performing a procedure near the internal capsule and wants to avoid damaging sensory pathways from the body to the cortex. Which anatomical landmark would BEST guide the surgeon in identifying the location of these pathways?
In a patient with damage limited to the thalamus, which sensory modality would LEAST likely be affected?
In a patient with damage limited to the thalamus, which sensory modality would LEAST likely be affected?
Imagine a hypothetical scenario where the neocortex layer IV is artificially thickened in a specific area. Which of the following would be the MOST likely functional consequence in that area of the cortex?
Imagine a hypothetical scenario where the neocortex layer IV is artificially thickened in a specific area. Which of the following would be the MOST likely functional consequence in that area of the cortex?
A novel neurodegenerative disease selectively targets multimodal association areas of the cortex. Which of the following would be the MOST likely EARLY symptom of this disease?
A novel neurodegenerative disease selectively targets multimodal association areas of the cortex. Which of the following would be the MOST likely EARLY symptom of this disease?
A researcher isolates a novel compound that selectively inhibits the function of commissural fibers, sparing association and projection fibers. Which of the following outcomes would MOST likely be observed in animal models treated with this compound?
A researcher isolates a novel compound that selectively inhibits the function of commissural fibers, sparing association and projection fibers. Which of the following outcomes would MOST likely be observed in animal models treated with this compound?
A hypothetical drug selectively enhances the myelination of projection fibers originating from Layer V of the motor cortex. Considering the function of Layer V and projection fibers, which of the following outcomes would be MOST likely?
A hypothetical drug selectively enhances the myelination of projection fibers originating from Layer V of the motor cortex. Considering the function of Layer V and projection fibers, which of the following outcomes would be MOST likely?
What is the overarching role of the basal nuclei?
What is the overarching role of the basal nuclei?
Which of the following structures is NOT classically included as one of the basal nuclei?
Which of the following structures is NOT classically included as one of the basal nuclei?
In the context of basal nuclei, the term 'striatum' refers to which combination of structures?
In the context of basal nuclei, the term 'striatum' refers to which combination of structures?
What is the defining characteristic of the globus pallidus in terms of its composition?
What is the defining characteristic of the globus pallidus in terms of its composition?
Which of the following best describes the anatomical relationship between the caudate and putamen?
Which of the following best describes the anatomical relationship between the caudate and putamen?
In which plane would the globus pallidus and putamen appear lens-shaped?
In which plane would the globus pallidus and putamen appear lens-shaped?
Which of the following best describes the position of the nucleus accumbens relative to the caudate and putamen?
Which of the following best describes the position of the nucleus accumbens relative to the caudate and putamen?
What is the primary function of the substantia nigra?
What is the primary function of the substantia nigra?
Which component of the substantia nigra is pigmented and synthesizes dopamine?
Which component of the substantia nigra is pigmented and synthesizes dopamine?
Which of the following most accurately describes the flow of information through the basal ganglia?
Which of the following most accurately describes the flow of information through the basal ganglia?
A patient is diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Which aspect of motor function is MOST likely to be impaired?
A patient is diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. Which aspect of motor function is MOST likely to be impaired?
Which of the following is the best description of Huntington's disease?
Which of the following is the best description of Huntington's disease?
In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), what abnormalities are seen concerning the basal ganglia?
In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), what abnormalities are seen concerning the basal ganglia?
What is the primary characteristic of Tourette syndrome related to basal nuclei function?
What is the primary characteristic of Tourette syndrome related to basal nuclei function?
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
The term 'mesocortex,' when used to describe parts of the limbic system, signifies what?
The term 'mesocortex,' when used to describe parts of the limbic system, signifies what?
Which of the following is a key function associated with the limbic system?
Which of the following is a key function associated with the limbic system?
Which of the following is considered a component of the limbic system's 'grey matter'?
Which of the following is considered a component of the limbic system's 'grey matter'?
Which of the following is a white matter pathway associated with the limbic system?
Which of the following is a white matter pathway associated with the limbic system?
What structure represents the first part of the cingulate gyrus?
What structure represents the first part of the cingulate gyrus?
In relation to the parahippocampal gyrus, what is the Uncus?
In relation to the parahippocampal gyrus, what is the Uncus?
What type of fiber tract is the cingulum?
What type of fiber tract is the cingulum?
What is the primary role of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
What is the primary role of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
Which of the following describes the anatomical relationship between the hippocampus and fornix?
Which of the following describes the anatomical relationship between the hippocampus and fornix?
What structure does the fornix primarily project to?
What structure does the fornix primarily project to?
What is the primary function associated with the mammillary bodies?
What is the primary function associated with the mammillary bodies?
Where is the amygdala located?
Where is the amygdala located?
What is the main function of the amygdala?
What is the main function of the amygdala?
Dorsally, the amygdala projects to which structure via the stria terminalis?
Dorsally, the amygdala projects to which structure via the stria terminalis?
What is the term for the ventral projection from the amygdala?
What is the term for the ventral projection from the amygdala?
Which of the following is a unique characteristic of olfaction compared to other senses?
Which of the following is a unique characteristic of olfaction compared to other senses?
What is the initial destination of olfactory information after it leaves the olfactory bulb?
What is the initial destination of olfactory information after it leaves the olfactory bulb?
What is the functional significance of the olfactory tubercle?
What is the functional significance of the olfactory tubercle?
After suffering from a stroke, a patient exhibits impaired regulation of emotion and heightened aggression. Which of the following structures is MOST likely affected?
After suffering from a stroke, a patient exhibits impaired regulation of emotion and heightened aggression. Which of the following structures is MOST likely affected?
A person with anterograde amnesia is MOST likely to have damage to which of the following structures?
A person with anterograde amnesia is MOST likely to have damage to which of the following structures?
A patient presents with challenges in motor planning. Imaging reveals degeneration in localized regions impacting pathways inside the basal ganglia. Which neurotransmitter is MOST likely decreased?
A patient presents with challenges in motor planning. Imaging reveals degeneration in localized regions impacting pathways inside the basal ganglia. Which neurotransmitter is MOST likely decreased?
A researcher is using optogenetics to selectively stimulate neurons within the subcallosal area. Which of the following downstream effect is MOST likely?
A researcher is using optogenetics to selectively stimulate neurons within the subcallosal area. Which of the following downstream effect is MOST likely?
A previously placid and friendly test subject is injected with a novel compound that increases activation of the Amygdala. Everything else being equal, how does this impact the behavior of the subject?
A previously placid and friendly test subject is injected with a novel compound that increases activation of the Amygdala. Everything else being equal, how does this impact the behavior of the subject?
Which of the following highlights the functional interplay between the basal ganglia and limbic system? This is an insanely difficult question
Which of the following highlights the functional interplay between the basal ganglia and limbic system? This is an insanely difficult question
Following a traumatic brain injury, a patient struggles to recall events immediately preceding the the accident, but shows an increased ability to recall childhood memories. Which combination of structures could BEST describe this dissociative cognitive ability? This is a very difficult question
Following a traumatic brain injury, a patient struggles to recall events immediately preceding the the accident, but shows an increased ability to recall childhood memories. Which combination of structures could BEST describe this dissociative cognitive ability? This is a very difficult question
Which anatomical structure houses the ossicles?
Which anatomical structure houses the ossicles?
What type of energy conversion occurs within the cochlea?
What type of energy conversion occurs within the cochlea?
What is the developmental origin of the ossicles?
What is the developmental origin of the ossicles?
Which muscle is associated with dampening strong vibrations, therefore also reducing net transduction?
Which muscle is associated with dampening strong vibrations, therefore also reducing net transduction?
What is the role of endolymph in the inner ear?
What is the role of endolymph in the inner ear?
Which of the following is a structure of the inner ear?
Which of the following is a structure of the inner ear?
What is the primary function of the auricle (pinna)?
What is the primary function of the auricle (pinna)?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the middle ear?
Which of the following accurately describes the function of the middle ear?
What structure connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx?
What structure connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx?
Where, relative to the cochlea, is the location of the apex?
Where, relative to the cochlea, is the location of the apex?
What is the function of the vestibular apparatus?
What is the function of the vestibular apparatus?
What is the role of the round window?
What is the role of the round window?
What is the helicotrema?
What is the helicotrema?
Which duct is responsible for balance but not hearing?
Which duct is responsible for balance but not hearing?
If an individual is unable to vertically localize sound, what part of their anatomy might have been modified?
If an individual is unable to vertically localize sound, what part of their anatomy might have been modified?
Which of the following detects a change when there is a tilt forward?
Which of the following detects a change when there is a tilt forward?
What part of the ear is responsible for converting pressure waves into action potentials?
What part of the ear is responsible for converting pressure waves into action potentials?
Where is the Otoconia located?
Where is the Otoconia located?
What is the primary function of the mastoid air cells?
What is the primary function of the mastoid air cells?
If the tensor tympani is activated, what affect does that have on sound transduction?
If the tensor tympani is activated, what affect does that have on sound transduction?
What ossicular chain part is connected to the oval window?
What ossicular chain part is connected to the oval window?
With regards to the basilar membrane, what is wide and floppy?
With regards to the basilar membrane, what is wide and floppy?
If there is high frequency then what part of the basilar membrane is narrow and stiff?
If there is high frequency then what part of the basilar membrane is narrow and stiff?
What stimulates the nerve directly if an individual has broken hair cells?
What stimulates the nerve directly if an individual has broken hair cells?
What happens if the nerve does not work?
What happens if the nerve does not work?
What results in push and pull excitation of the semi-circular canals?
What results in push and pull excitation of the semi-circular canals?
What is considered to be 'gooey stuff'?
What is considered to be 'gooey stuff'?
If the sound-snail is small then what is it?
If the sound-snail is small then what is it?
With regards to linear acceleration, how many chambers are in the vestibule?
With regards to linear acceleration, how many chambers are in the vestibule?
With regards to rotational acceleration, how many canals are used?
With regards to rotational acceleration, how many canals are used?
How do you bypass hair cells when they're broken?
How do you bypass hair cells when they're broken?
When does horizontal equal excitation?
When does horizontal equal excitation?
Describe the general route of sound in the ear:
Describe the general route of sound in the ear:
What are the canals related to person to person?
What are the canals related to person to person?
True or False: Cochlea is directly responsible for balance
True or False: Cochlea is directly responsible for balance
What two things are synergistic bilateral pairs?
What two things are synergistic bilateral pairs?
Where does a electrode get inserted to directly stimulate the nerve?
Where does a electrode get inserted to directly stimulate the nerve?
What is the proper relationship of the cupula and hair cells?
What is the proper relationship of the cupula and hair cells?
If an electrode array is matching a tonotopic map, what specific part of the system
If an electrode array is matching a tonotopic map, what specific part of the system
How is pressure equalized in the middle ear?
How is pressure equalized in the middle ear?
Damage to the cupula would affect which sense?
Damage to the cupula would affect which sense?
If a child has a horizontal tube, what are they more likely to get?
If a child has a horizontal tube, what are they more likely to get?
When inner hair cells are embedded to the tectorial membrane?
When inner hair cells are embedded to the tectorial membrane?
A scientist is studying the effect of otoconia. Where should she specifically be looking?
A scientist is studying the effect of otoconia. Where should she specifically be looking?
Which of the following lists the structures that constitute the brainstem?
Which of the following lists the structures that constitute the brainstem?
Which ventricle is associated with the mesencephalon (midbrain)?
Which ventricle is associated with the mesencephalon (midbrain)?
What is the primary function of the brainstem as a 'conduit'?
What is the primary function of the brainstem as a 'conduit'?
Which directional term describes the location of the cerebral peduncles relative to the pons?
Which directional term describes the location of the cerebral peduncles relative to the pons?
Which of the following structures is located dorsally in the midbrain?
Which of the following structures is located dorsally in the midbrain?
In the medulla, the gracile and cuneate fasciculi are located:
In the medulla, the gracile and cuneate fasciculi are located:
Which structures are located in the basal pons?
Which structures are located in the basal pons?
Which of the following is a function associated with the reticular formation?
Which of the following is a function associated with the reticular formation?
Which of the following best characterizes the organization of the internal structure relative to the external features of the brainstem?
Which of the following best characterizes the organization of the internal structure relative to the external features of the brainstem?
What is the term used to describe the covering of the midbrain?
What is the term used to describe the covering of the midbrain?
Which of the following lists the cranial nerves that originate from the pons which, based on position when viewing the brainstem, are in the middle?
Which of the following lists the cranial nerves that originate from the pons which, based on position when viewing the brainstem, are in the middle?
Where can you find cranial nerves XI and XII when viewing a brainstem?
Where can you find cranial nerves XI and XII when viewing a brainstem?
Which of the following is a key component of the medulla?
Which of the following is a key component of the medulla?
Which of the following is a survival control center located in the brainstem?
Which of the following is a survival control center located in the brainstem?
What is the relative location of the pons to the medulla?
What is the relative location of the pons to the medulla?
Damage to the Crus cerebri would primarily affect which type of function?
Damage to the Crus cerebri would primarily affect which type of function?
The tectum is best associated with which function?
The tectum is best associated with which function?
Which of the following correctly pairs a cranial nerve with its point of exit from the brainstem?
Which of the following correctly pairs a cranial nerve with its point of exit from the brainstem?
If the medullary vela were damaged, which structure is MOST likely to be affected?
If the medullary vela were damaged, which structure is MOST likely to be affected?
A lesion in the area of the brainstem affects pain sensitivity, alertness, and arousal. Which area of the brainstem is MOST likely affected?
A lesion in the area of the brainstem affects pain sensitivity, alertness, and arousal. Which area of the brainstem is MOST likely affected?
In the rostral Medulla the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts are in what section?
In the rostral Medulla the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts are in what section?
With respect to the pyramids, where would you find cranial nerves?
With respect to the pyramids, where would you find cranial nerves?
While the inferior olivary nucleus can be found in the medulla, where is the olive itself?
While the inferior olivary nucleus can be found in the medulla, where is the olive itself?
Considering their developmental origins, which cranial nerves are MOST closely related to the diencephalon?
Considering their developmental origins, which cranial nerves are MOST closely related to the diencephalon?
A patient with damage to the tegmentum MOST likely shows deficits in:
A patient with damage to the tegmentum MOST likely shows deficits in:
Which of the following is a primary role of the anterolateral sulcus?
Which of the following is a primary role of the anterolateral sulcus?
If all cranial nerves except CN XI where in the brainstem nuclei, what would be true of CN XI?
If all cranial nerves except CN XI where in the brainstem nuclei, what would be true of CN XI?
Which of the following best describes a key function of the brainstem?
Which of the following best describes a key function of the brainstem?
In the rostral midbrain which structure is directly related to sight?
In the rostral midbrain which structure is directly related to sight?
Which directional plane makes the globus pallidus and putamen appear lens shaped?
Which directional plane makes the globus pallidus and putamen appear lens shaped?
Where does CNIII exit?
Where does CNIII exit?
As you move Caudal through the midbrain, what happens?
As you move Caudal through the midbrain, what happens?
Which cranial nerve's origin transitions from medial to lateral as it exits the brainstem?
Which cranial nerve's origin transitions from medial to lateral as it exits the brainstem?
With respect to the cranial nerve nuclei, what would be true if you had ventral damage?
With respect to the cranial nerve nuclei, what would be true if you had ventral damage?
Regarding the cranial nerve nuclei, what nuclei is found at the Sulcus limitans?
Regarding the cranial nerve nuclei, what nuclei is found at the Sulcus limitans?
Which of the following is TRUE regarding the brainstem's role in motor function?
Which of the following is TRUE regarding the brainstem's role in motor function?
A patient presents with difficulty coordinating eye movements and maintaining balance. Imaging reveals damage to the brainstem. Which region is MOST likely affected?
A patient presents with difficulty coordinating eye movements and maintaining balance. Imaging reveals damage to the brainstem. Which region is MOST likely affected?
What is the PRIMARY role of pain modulation in the brainstem?
What is the PRIMARY role of pain modulation in the brainstem?
A patient with damage to the tegmentum is MOST likely to have symptoms where?
A patient with damage to the tegmentum is MOST likely to have symptoms where?
Consider a scenario where the rhombencephalon develops abnormally, leading to defects in the formation of both the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Which functions will be MOST directly affected?
Consider a scenario where the rhombencephalon develops abnormally, leading to defects in the formation of both the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Which functions will be MOST directly affected?
Which of the following structures is NOT considered part of the external ear?
Which of the following structures is NOT considered part of the external ear?
Which of the following is the primary function of the ossicles located in the middle ear?
Which of the following is the primary function of the ossicles located in the middle ear?
What is the role of the cochlea in the process of hearing?
What is the role of the cochlea in the process of hearing?
Which of the following describes the role of the vestibular apparatus?
Which of the following describes the role of the vestibular apparatus?
From which embryonic layer is the inner ear derived?
From which embryonic layer is the inner ear derived?
The middle ear is an extension of which structure?
The middle ear is an extension of which structure?
Which arch or arches are the ossicles derived from?
Which arch or arches are the ossicles derived from?
What is the origin of the bony labyrinth?
What is the origin of the bony labyrinth?
What is the most likely outcome if an adult's pinna is modified?
What is the most likely outcome if an adult's pinna is modified?
Which cranial nerves have a functional relationship related to ear mobility and function?
Which cranial nerves have a functional relationship related to ear mobility and function?
Which of the following is the function of the pharyngotympanic tube?
Which of the following is the function of the pharyngotympanic tube?
Why are children more prone to ear infections?
Why are children more prone to ear infections?
Which sequence correctly describes the order in which sound vibrations pass through the ossicles?
Which sequence correctly describes the order in which sound vibrations pass through the ossicles?
Which cranial nerve innervates the stapedius muscle?
Which cranial nerve innervates the stapedius muscle?
What is the function of the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles of the middle ear?
What is the function of the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles of the middle ear?
Which of the following contains endolymph?
Which of the following contains endolymph?
The vestibulocochlear nerve carries afferent information from the:
The vestibulocochlear nerve carries afferent information from the:
What structure is filled with perilymph?
What structure is filled with perilymph?
In the cochlea, where are the Scala tympani and Scala vestibuli connected?
In the cochlea, where are the Scala tympani and Scala vestibuli connected?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the cochlea?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the cochlea?
What is the function of the outer hair cells within the organ of Corti?
What is the function of the outer hair cells within the organ of Corti?
What is the role of the tectorial membrane in the cochlea?
What is the role of the tectorial membrane in the cochlea?
Which of the following best describes the tonotopic organization of the basilar membrane?
Which of the following best describes the tonotopic organization of the basilar membrane?
What are the main components of the vestibular apparatus responsible for detecting linear acceleration?
What are the main components of the vestibular apparatus responsible for detecting linear acceleration?
How does the brain determine head tilt?
How does the brain determine head tilt?
If someone is spinning, what part of their anatomy is detecting the activity?
If someone is spinning, what part of their anatomy is detecting the activity?
Which structures contain hair cells that project into a cupula?
Which structures contain hair cells that project into a cupula?
How are the semicircular canals oriented in relation to each other?
How are the semicircular canals oriented in relation to each other?
Which of the following describes the functional relationship between the anterior and posterior semicircular canals?
Which of the following describes the functional relationship between the anterior and posterior semicircular canals?
When the brain collects vestibular information, how does it organize it?
When the brain collects vestibular information, how does it organize it?
What is the effect of pushing and pulling in terms of excitation vs inhibition?
What is the effect of pushing and pulling in terms of excitation vs inhibition?
Which condition involves damage to hair cells in the inner ear?
Which condition involves damage to hair cells in the inner ear?
In cases of severe hearing loss due to damaged hair cells, how can cochlear implants help?
In cases of severe hearing loss due to damaged hair cells, how can cochlear implants help?
In cochlear implantation, the implanted electrodes are ideally positioned to:
In cochlear implantation, the implanted electrodes are ideally positioned to:
If the cochlear nerve is not functional, what alternative intervention might be considered?
If the cochlear nerve is not functional, what alternative intervention might be considered?
A patient reports difficulty hearing high-frequency sounds. Which portion of the basilar membrane is MOST likely affected?
A patient reports difficulty hearing high-frequency sounds. Which portion of the basilar membrane is MOST likely affected?
After an accident, a patient experiences a loss of balance and difficulty with spatial orientation, but their hearing remains intact. Which of the following structures was MOST likely damaged?
After an accident, a patient experiences a loss of balance and difficulty with spatial orientation, but their hearing remains intact. Which of the following structures was MOST likely damaged?
A genetic mutation causes the stapes footplate to be unable to effectively transmit vibrations to the oval window. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence?
A genetic mutation causes the stapes footplate to be unable to effectively transmit vibrations to the oval window. Which of the following would be the MOST likely consequence?
A new drug selectively blocks the function of outer hair cells in the cochlea. Everything else being equal, what would be the MOST LIKELY impact on hearing?
A new drug selectively blocks the function of outer hair cells in the cochlea. Everything else being equal, what would be the MOST LIKELY impact on hearing?
A patient has selective damage to the utricle but NOT the saccule. Which sensory deficit is MOST likely?
A patient has selective damage to the utricle but NOT the saccule. Which sensory deficit is MOST likely?
In a hypothetical scenario, a scientist discovers that the cupula in an animal model is abnormally dense, reducing its ability to be deflected by endolymph flow. Which sensory function would be MOST affected by this abnormality?
In a hypothetical scenario, a scientist discovers that the cupula in an animal model is abnormally dense, reducing its ability to be deflected by endolymph flow. Which sensory function would be MOST affected by this abnormality?
Considering the synergistic relationship between bilateral semicircular canals, a lesion selectively affecting the left anterior canal's afferent neurons would MOST likely result in what?
Considering the synergistic relationship between bilateral semicircular canals, a lesion selectively affecting the left anterior canal's afferent neurons would MOST likely result in what?
Building on knowledge of the developmental origins of the ear, a researcher discovers a genetic mutation that selectively disrupts endoderm development in the nasopharynx. Which of the following structures or processes would be MOST directly affected? This is an insanely difficult question
Building on knowledge of the developmental origins of the ear, a researcher discovers a genetic mutation that selectively disrupts endoderm development in the nasopharynx. Which of the following structures or processes would be MOST directly affected? This is an insanely difficult question
During development, which adult brain structure is derived from the myelencephalon?
During development, which adult brain structure is derived from the myelencephalon?
Which ventricle is associated with the diencephalon?
Which ventricle is associated with the diencephalon?
Which of the following structures is located on the dorsal side of the midbrain?
Which of the following structures is located on the dorsal side of the midbrain?
The gracile and cuneate fasciculi are located in which part of the brainstem?
The gracile and cuneate fasciculi are located in which part of the brainstem?
The respiratory control center is located in the:
The respiratory control center is located in the:
CNIII to CNXII nuclei, excluding CNXI, are contained within the
CNIII to CNXII nuclei, excluding CNXI, are contained within the
Which of the following structures is located anterior (ventral) to the pons?
Which of the following structures is located anterior (ventral) to the pons?
Which of the following cranial nerves is located at the pontomedullary junction?
Which of the following cranial nerves is located at the pontomedullary junction?
If a lesion occurred in the tectum of the midbrain, which function would be MOST affected?
If a lesion occurred in the tectum of the midbrain, which function would be MOST affected?
The reticular formation, which modulates alertness and arousal, is found primarily in the:
The reticular formation, which modulates alertness and arousal, is found primarily in the:
Which of the following best describes the function of the brainstem as a 'conduit'?
Which of the following best describes the function of the brainstem as a 'conduit'?
Which best explains the organization of different parts of the brainstem?
Which best explains the organization of different parts of the brainstem?
In the rostral medulla, where are the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts located?
In the rostral medulla, where are the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts located?
Which of the following describes the course of the medial lemniscus through the brainstem?
Which of the following describes the course of the medial lemniscus through the brainstem?
Which of the following cranial nerves exits from the interpeduncular fossa?
Which of the following cranial nerves exits from the interpeduncular fossa?
Which of the following is part of the survival control centers located in the brainstem?
Which of the following is part of the survival control centers located in the brainstem?
Lesions of the medullary vela MOST directly affect which structure?
Lesions of the medullary vela MOST directly affect which structure?
Where, specifically, does CNIII transition to lateral as it exits the brainstem?
Where, specifically, does CNIII transition to lateral as it exits the brainstem?
The cerebral aqueduct connects the third and fourth ventricle; which of the following structures is it associated with?
The cerebral aqueduct connects the third and fourth ventricle; which of the following structures is it associated with?
The vasomotor center regulates blood pressure. Where is it located?
The vasomotor center regulates blood pressure. Where is it located?
Which of the following structures is found within the basal pons?
Which of the following structures is found within the basal pons?
In the midbrain, what is the relative position of the red nucleus compared to the superior colliculus?
In the midbrain, what is the relative position of the red nucleus compared to the superior colliculus?
If a patient has damage to the anterolateral sulcus in the medulla, which cranial nerve would be MOST directly impacted?
If a patient has damage to the anterolateral sulcus in the medulla, which cranial nerve would be MOST directly impacted?
If you had ventral damage to the brainstem, what would be MOST likely with respect to cranial nerve nuclei?
If you had ventral damage to the brainstem, what would be MOST likely with respect to cranial nerve nuclei?
In the caudal medulla, damage restricted to the internal arcuate fibers would impair which function?
In the caudal medulla, damage restricted to the internal arcuate fibers would impair which function?
Consider the cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem relative to the sulcus limitans. What best describes their organization?
Consider the cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem relative to the sulcus limitans. What best describes their organization?
Which of the following cranial nerves would be least likely affected by damage limited to the tegmentum?
Which of the following cranial nerves would be least likely affected by damage limited to the tegmentum?
Consider a patient with a lesion affecting the lateral aspect of the rostral pons. Which of the following deficits would you MOST expect?
Consider a patient with a lesion affecting the lateral aspect of the rostral pons. Which of the following deficits would you MOST expect?
How does the flow of information change between the medulla and midbrain?
How does the flow of information change between the medulla and midbrain?
A patient presents with impaired reflexes and a lack of alertness. Imaging reveals damage to localized regions inside the lateral brainstem. Which neurotransmitter is MOST likely to be impacted?
A patient presents with impaired reflexes and a lack of alertness. Imaging reveals damage to localized regions inside the lateral brainstem. Which neurotransmitter is MOST likely to be impacted?
While assessing a patient, you determine CN XI is NOT in the cranial nuclei. What might that suggest?
While assessing a patient, you determine CN XI is NOT in the cranial nuclei. What might that suggest?
A novel neurotoxin selectively targets and destroys neurons in the inferior olivary nucleus. How would this manifest?
A novel neurotoxin selectively targets and destroys neurons in the inferior olivary nucleus. How would this manifest?
A patient presents with a rare condition characterized by the abnormal fusion of the alar and basal plates during development. Considering the organization of cranial nerve nuclei, in what manner can the Nuclei configuration can be best be described?
A patient presents with a rare condition characterized by the abnormal fusion of the alar and basal plates during development. Considering the organization of cranial nerve nuclei, in what manner can the Nuclei configuration can be best be described?
A researcher is studying a genetic mutation that results in the absence of rhombomeres during embryonic development. Considering the role of rhombomeres, which of the following structures or processes would MOST likely be affected in individuals with this disorder?
A researcher is studying a genetic mutation that results in the absence of rhombomeres during embryonic development. Considering the role of rhombomeres, which of the following structures or processes would MOST likely be affected in individuals with this disorder?
Which of the following accurately describes the location of grey matter in the spinal cord?
Which of the following accurately describes the location of grey matter in the spinal cord?
What is the primary type of information carried in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord?
What is the primary type of information carried in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord?
What is the definition of Rexed Laminae?
What is the definition of Rexed Laminae?
Which of the following best describes the primary function of the ventral corticospinal tract?
Which of the following best describes the primary function of the ventral corticospinal tract?
The anterolateral system contains what?
The anterolateral system contains what?
What type of deficits might an individual experience with damage to the dorsal column?
What type of deficits might an individual experience with damage to the dorsal column?
Which of the following describes how pain and temperature information ascends to the brain?
Which of the following describes how pain and temperature information ascends to the brain?
What is the function of the fasciculus gracilis?
What is the function of the fasciculus gracilis?
Which tract would be MOST affected by a lesion in the lateral white column of the spinal cord?
Which tract would be MOST affected by a lesion in the lateral white column of the spinal cord?
What is a key function of the Lissauer's tract?
What is a key function of the Lissauer's tract?
What is the typical order of neurons in a sensory pathway?
What is the typical order of neurons in a sensory pathway?
Which statement accurately describes how the corticospinal tract influences movement?
Which statement accurately describes how the corticospinal tract influences movement?
Which of the following pathways is NOT directly involved in motor control?
Which of the following pathways is NOT directly involved in motor control?
What is the MOST immediate consequence of damage to the ventral white commissure?
What is the MOST immediate consequence of damage to the ventral white commissure?
What is the role of the spinoreticular tract?
What is the role of the spinoreticular tract?
Which of the following describes motor pathways that do not directly originate from pyramidal neurons?
Which of the following describes motor pathways that do not directly originate from pyramidal neurons?
What would be the likely outcome of a complete transection of the spinal cord at the upper thoracic level?
What would be the likely outcome of a complete transection of the spinal cord at the upper thoracic level?
What would most likely occur if the anterior corticospinal tract were damaged?
What would most likely occur if the anterior corticospinal tract were damaged?
Where do fibers of the lateral corticospinal tract decussate before synapsing on lower motor neurons?
Where do fibers of the lateral corticospinal tract decussate before synapsing on lower motor neurons?
How does information typically flow through the dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway?
How does information typically flow through the dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway?
Which Rexed lamina receives direct input from Lissauer’s tract?
Which Rexed lamina receives direct input from Lissauer’s tract?
In the spinothalamic tract, which fibers transmit sharp, localized pain?
In the spinothalamic tract, which fibers transmit sharp, localized pain?
If a patient can feel light touch but not pain or temperature on the left side of their body, where is the MOST likely location of the lesion?
If a patient can feel light touch but not pain or temperature on the left side of their body, where is the MOST likely location of the lesion?
After decussation in the medulla, which ascending tract carries fine touch and proprioceptive information?
After decussation in the medulla, which ascending tract carries fine touch and proprioceptive information?
Damage to the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the sacral spinal cord would MOST directly affect:
Damage to the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the sacral spinal cord would MOST directly affect:
While motor pathways decussate, this ultimately facilitates what action?
While motor pathways decussate, this ultimately facilitates what action?
If the dorsal root ganglion is damaged, which tract is damaged?
If the dorsal root ganglion is damaged, which tract is damaged?
Besides motor signals, autonomic signals originate from the hypothalamus and run through what?
Besides motor signals, autonomic signals originate from the hypothalamus and run through what?
What is true of the corticobulbar pathway?
What is true of the corticobulbar pathway?
In the spinal cord, lateral horns are associated with what?
In the spinal cord, lateral horns are associated with what?
What statement is true regarding second-order neurons in the gracile or cuneate nuclei?
What statement is true regarding second-order neurons in the gracile or cuneate nuclei?
Damage to the anterolateral system typically causes a loss of what, and where?
Damage to the anterolateral system typically causes a loss of what, and where?
What accurately describes the spatial relationship between the fibers of the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus as they ascend in the spinal cord?
What accurately describes the spatial relationship between the fibers of the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus as they ascend in the spinal cord?
How can a small fiber impinge upon a larger fiber?
How can a small fiber impinge upon a larger fiber?
Which aspect of the spinothalamic and spinoreticular tracts relates to the anterolateral function?
Which aspect of the spinothalamic and spinoreticular tracts relates to the anterolateral function?
In the context of the dorsal column medial lemniscus where does the pathway originate?
In the context of the dorsal column medial lemniscus where does the pathway originate?
If an individual is exhibiting a diminished ability to consciously perceive touch, and it's related to the pathway itself, where are they being affected?
If an individual is exhibiting a diminished ability to consciously perceive touch, and it's related to the pathway itself, where are they being affected?
What is the primary way that the spinothalamic tract differs from the dorsal column's medial lemniscus?
What is the primary way that the spinothalamic tract differs from the dorsal column's medial lemniscus?
Patient X presents with ipsilateral paralysis and contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensation below the level of the lesion. Which of the following conditions does Patient X most likely have?
Patient X presents with ipsilateral paralysis and contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensation below the level of the lesion. Which of the following conditions does Patient X most likely have?
A researcher is studying the effects of a novel drug that selectively blocks the release of neurotransmitters from first-order neurons in the dorsal root ganglion. Which sensory modality would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
A researcher is studying the effects of a novel drug that selectively blocks the release of neurotransmitters from first-order neurons in the dorsal root ganglion. Which sensory modality would be MOST directly affected by this drug?
A patient has the anterior root cut. What sense is disrupted?
A patient has the anterior root cut. What sense is disrupted?
What is the literal meaning of the term 'cerebellum'?
What is the literal meaning of the term 'cerebellum'?
Which of the following describes the arbor vitae found within the cerebellum?
Which of the following describes the arbor vitae found within the cerebellum?
Which cerebellar peduncle is the largest and most lateral?
Which cerebellar peduncle is the largest and most lateral?
To what side of the body does the cerebellum primarily connect and control?
To what side of the body does the cerebellum primarily connect and control?
Which of the following describes the function that is added over time during cerebellar phylogenesis?
Which of the following describes the function that is added over time during cerebellar phylogenesis?
How many lobes are typically used to describe the gross anatomy of the cerebellum?
How many lobes are typically used to describe the gross anatomy of the cerebellum?
What anatomical feature separates the anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum?
What anatomical feature separates the anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum?
What is the name of the median portion of the cerebellum that connects both hemispheres?
What is the name of the median portion of the cerebellum that connects both hemispheres?
The anterior end of the inferior vermis transitions to form which structure?
The anterior end of the inferior vermis transitions to form which structure?
What is the name for the part of posterior lobe that is positioned most inferomedially?
What is the name for the part of posterior lobe that is positioned most inferomedially?
Where are the deep nuclei located inside the cerebellum?
Where are the deep nuclei located inside the cerebellum?
What is the name of the largest and most lateral of the deep cerebellar nuclei?
What is the name of the largest and most lateral of the deep cerebellar nuclei?
Which motor process is directly related to the interposed nuclei?
Which motor process is directly related to the interposed nuclei?
To what anatomical structure are the fastigial nuclei closest to?
To what anatomical structure are the fastigial nuclei closest to?
What is the consequence of actual motor attenuation when the intended motor is different?
What is the consequence of actual motor attenuation when the intended motor is different?
Which motor component developed first?
Which motor component developed first?
What is the relationship of Integration with respect to Inputs and Outputs?
What is the relationship of Integration with respect to Inputs and Outputs?
Which of the following is the correct order of the three layers of the cerebellar cortex, from outer to inner?
Which of the following is the correct order of the three layers of the cerebellar cortex, from outer to inner?
Which of the following is an efferent, or output, from the cerebellar cortex?
Which of the following is an efferent, or output, from the cerebellar cortex?
Which statement best describes the climbing fibers?
Which statement best describes the climbing fibers?
What is true regarding the Spino-olivary tract?
What is true regarding the Spino-olivary tract?
If the inferior olivary nucleus is lesioned, then what happens to the contralateral cerebellar hemisphere?
If the inferior olivary nucleus is lesioned, then what happens to the contralateral cerebellar hemisphere?
From where do climbing fibers receive the most powerful excitatory input in the central nervous system?
From where do climbing fibers receive the most powerful excitatory input in the central nervous system?
Which of the following is unique about the granules cells?
Which of the following is unique about the granules cells?
What is meant by 'proprioceptive data'?
What is meant by 'proprioceptive data'?
Which spinocerebellar tract remains ipsilateral throughout its entire course?
Which spinocerebellar tract remains ipsilateral throughout its entire course?
Which input data tract is positioned illogically with regards to the cerebellar peduncles?
Which input data tract is positioned illogically with regards to the cerebellar peduncles?
Which cerebellar peduncle is solely composed of afferents?
Which cerebellar peduncle is solely composed of afferents?
What is the oldest (in an evolutionary sense) functional division of the cerebellum?
What is the oldest (in an evolutionary sense) functional division of the cerebellum?
Which anatomical parts corresponds to Flocculonodular and Fastigial?
Which anatomical parts corresponds to Flocculonodular and Fastigial?
What would be the likely result if you inhibit the fastigial nucleus?
What would be the likely result if you inhibit the fastigial nucleus?
Destruction to Globose & Emboliform nuclei results in loss of what capacity?
Destruction to Globose & Emboliform nuclei results in loss of what capacity?
What is true regarding the cerebrocerebellum's input to the Pontine Nuclei?
What is true regarding the cerebrocerebellum's input to the Pontine Nuclei?
What is the clinical result for lesioning the cerebrocerebellum?
What is the clinical result for lesioning the cerebrocerebellum?
Which area is not solely responsible for motor functionality?
Which area is not solely responsible for motor functionality?
In the context of the cerebellum, what is the role of the spinocerebellar tracts?
In the context of the cerebellum, what is the role of the spinocerebellar tracts?
A patient exhibits tremors during voluntary movements, particularly when reaching for an object. Lesions to what area might result in this condition?
A patient exhibits tremors during voluntary movements, particularly when reaching for an object. Lesions to what area might result in this condition?
If a patient showed abnormalities when you inhibit the pontine, and were being considered for surgery, which other brainpart is likely impacted?
If a patient showed abnormalities when you inhibit the pontine, and were being considered for surgery, which other brainpart is likely impacted?
What is the function of the vestibulocerebellum?
What is the function of the vestibulocerebellum?
Which cerebellar peduncle serves as the primary route for afferent fibers entering the cerebellum from the pons?
Which cerebellar peduncle serves as the primary route for afferent fibers entering the cerebellum from the pons?
Which of the following describes the primary function associated with the spinocerebellum?
Which of the following describes the primary function associated with the spinocerebellum?
What is the role of climbing fibres within the cerebellar cortex?
What is the role of climbing fibres within the cerebellar cortex?
A patient suffers damage to the middle cerebellar peduncle. Everything else being equal, what processes are degraded?
A patient suffers damage to the middle cerebellar peduncle. Everything else being equal, what processes are degraded?
Which of the following is NOT considered a component of the cerebellum's general structure?
Which of the following is NOT considered a component of the cerebellum's general structure?
Which cerebellar peduncle is the MOST lateral and largest?
Which cerebellar peduncle is the MOST lateral and largest?
To what side of the body does the cerebellum control movement?
To what side of the body does the cerebellum control movement?
What anatomical feature divides the anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum?
What anatomical feature divides the anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum?
Which of the following is a key function of the vermis?
Which of the following is a key function of the vermis?
What is the relative location of the tonsils of the cerebellum?
What is the relative location of the tonsils of the cerebellum?
Which of the deep cerebellar nuclei is MOST medial and closest to the apex of the fourth ventricle?
Which of the deep cerebellar nuclei is MOST medial and closest to the apex of the fourth ventricle?
Which deep cerebellar nuclei is the largest?
Which deep cerebellar nuclei is the largest?
What is the function of the interposed nuclei?
What is the function of the interposed nuclei?
What does the evolutionary perspective of cerebellar function suggest?
What does the evolutionary perspective of cerebellar function suggest?
Damage to the oldest part of the cerebellum is associated with what?
Damage to the oldest part of the cerebellum is associated with what?
Which of the following describes the cerebellar cortex?
Which of the following describes the cerebellar cortex?
From where does the input to the cerebellar cortex known as climbing fibers originate?
From where does the input to the cerebellar cortex known as climbing fibers originate?
If the inferior olivary nucleus on one side of the brain is lesioned which side cerebellar hemisphere will degenerate?
If the inferior olivary nucleus on one side of the brain is lesioned which side cerebellar hemisphere will degenerate?
Where do the climbing fibers project?
Where do the climbing fibers project?
What are the MOST abundant neurons in the CNS?
What are the MOST abundant neurons in the CNS?
If a patient presents with impaired proprioception, which tract to the cerebellum is MOST likely involved?
If a patient presents with impaired proprioception, which tract to the cerebellum is MOST likely involved?
Which spinocerebellar tract decussates via the ventral white commissure and ascends as the ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract?
Which spinocerebellar tract decussates via the ventral white commissure and ascends as the ventral/anterior spinocerebellar tract?
If a patient primarily has fine motor errors following a stroke, which spinocerebellar tract might be affected?
If a patient primarily has fine motor errors following a stroke, which spinocerebellar tract might be affected?
The ventral spinocerebellar tract conveys information pertaining to what?
The ventral spinocerebellar tract conveys information pertaining to what?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains only afferent fibers to the cerebellum?
Which cerebellar peduncle contains only afferent fibers to the cerebellum?
Which of the functional divisions is responsible for balance and posture?
Which of the functional divisions is responsible for balance and posture?
Which of the functional divisions is responsible for coordinating eye movements?
Which of the functional divisions is responsible for coordinating eye movements?
Which functional division helps with planning & executing motor movements, muscular coordination, trajectory, speed & force?
Which functional division helps with planning & executing motor movements, muscular coordination, trajectory, speed & force?
Which of the following is the Archicerebellum the same as?
Which of the following is the Archicerebellum the same as?
The vestibulocerebellum receives direct input from the vestibular nerve, which cranial nerve is this?
The vestibulocerebellum receives direct input from the vestibular nerve, which cranial nerve is this?
What occurs if there is a lesion in the vestibulocerebellum?
What occurs if there is a lesion in the vestibulocerebellum?
Red nucleus in the midbrain occurs in which division?
Red nucleus in the midbrain occurs in which division?
The cerebrocerebellum receives input primarily from what structure?
The cerebrocerebellum receives input primarily from what structure?
What would damage to the Crus cerebri primarily affect?
What would damage to the Crus cerebri primarily affect?
What is most likely to occur if there is a lesion in the cerebrocerebellum?
What is most likely to occur if there is a lesion in the cerebrocerebellum?
What aspect of cerebellar function is highlighted by the observation that blood flow to the cerebellum increases during purely cognitive tasks?
What aspect of cerebellar function is highlighted by the observation that blood flow to the cerebellum increases during purely cognitive tasks?
What is the deepest part of the cerebellum?
What is the deepest part of the cerebellum?
Which of the following features are included in the spinocerebellar tract?
Which of the following features are included in the spinocerebellar tract?
Which is the correct statement about Superior Cerebellar Peduncle?
Which is the correct statement about Superior Cerebellar Peduncle?
What is the difference in activity relating to the cerebellum during learning?
What is the difference in activity relating to the cerebellum during learning?
Which best describes the function of climbing fibers in the cerebellum?
Which best describes the function of climbing fibers in the cerebellum?
What is the functional consequence of damage to pontocerebellar fibers?
What is the functional consequence of damage to pontocerebellar fibers?
Which statement best summarizes the role of the dentate nucleus?
Which statement best summarizes the role of the dentate nucleus?
A stroke that affects the lateral aspect of the medulla oblongata, damaging the inferior cerebellar peduncle, would MOST likely cause deficits related to which of the following?
A stroke that affects the lateral aspect of the medulla oblongata, damaging the inferior cerebellar peduncle, would MOST likely cause deficits related to which of the following?
Which of the following best describes the impact of total ischemia on brain function after approximately 20 seconds?
Which of the following best describes the impact of total ischemia on brain function after approximately 20 seconds?
What is the primary source of arterial blood supply for most of the telencephalon?
What is the primary source of arterial blood supply for most of the telencephalon?
Through which anatomical structure do the internal carotid arteries enter the skull?
Through which anatomical structure do the internal carotid arteries enter the skull?
What anatomical feature is created as the internal carotid arteries reflect on themselves?
What anatomical feature is created as the internal carotid arteries reflect on themselves?
The vertebral arteries unite to form which major artery that contributes to the cerebral arterial circle?
The vertebral arteries unite to form which major artery that contributes to the cerebral arterial circle?
What is the route for the vertebrobasilar system?
What is the route for the vertebrobasilar system?
Which arteries directly supply the anterior portion of the cerebral arterial circle?
Which arteries directly supply the anterior portion of the cerebral arterial circle?
Which cerebral artery supplies the lateral aspect of the cerebral hemispheres, including the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes?
Which cerebral artery supplies the lateral aspect of the cerebral hemispheres, including the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes?
Occlusion of the lenticulostriate arteries, often referred to as 'arteries of stroke,' would MOST directly affect which structures?
Occlusion of the lenticulostriate arteries, often referred to as 'arteries of stroke,' would MOST directly affect which structures?
The anterior limb of the internal capsule separates which two structures?
The anterior limb of the internal capsule separates which two structures?
A stroke affecting the anterior choroidal artery would MOST likely impact which structure?
A stroke affecting the anterior choroidal artery would MOST likely impact which structure?
What region of the brain is MOST vulnerable to reductions in perfusion due to having end arteries and little overlap between arterial territories?
What region of the brain is MOST vulnerable to reductions in perfusion due to having end arteries and little overlap between arterial territories?
Which type of vein drains deep brain structures such as the basal nuclei, thalamus, and internal capsule?
Which type of vein drains deep brain structures such as the basal nuclei, thalamus, and internal capsule?
Superficial veins empty into which structure?
Superficial veins empty into which structure?
Into which major dural venous sinus does the great cerebral vein primarily drain?
Into which major dural venous sinus does the great cerebral vein primarily drain?
What type of vein facilitates venous drainage of the brain?
What type of vein facilitates venous drainage of the brain?
What is the orientation of radicular veins?
What is the orientation of radicular veins?
Via which structures does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leave the 4th ventricle to enter the subarachnoid space?
Via which structures does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leave the 4th ventricle to enter the subarachnoid space?
Where does CSF get reabsorbed into blood?
Where does CSF get reabsorbed into blood?
What is typically the radicular artery that supplies the spinal cord at T12?
What is typically the radicular artery that supplies the spinal cord at T12?
Which of the following best describes, qualitatively, the location for where the anterior spinal artery supplies?
Which of the following best describes, qualitatively, the location for where the anterior spinal artery supplies?
With regards to the supply for both anterior and posterior spinal arteries, what is the origin?
With regards to the supply for both anterior and posterior spinal arteries, what is the origin?
Why is grey matter so sensitive to total ischemia?
Why is grey matter so sensitive to total ischemia?
Which type of vein ultimately drains into related body drainage?
Which type of vein ultimately drains into related body drainage?
A patient presents with stroke-like symptoms, including contralateral pure motor hemiplegia, after an embolic event. Which arterial group would be MOST suspected of causing this?
A patient presents with stroke-like symptoms, including contralateral pure motor hemiplegia, after an embolic event. Which arterial group would be MOST suspected of causing this?
What is the best way to describe, based on location, the radicular segmental medullary?
What is the best way to describe, based on location, the radicular segmental medullary?
If one has a blockage of blood in the basilar artery, in what absolute territory is the arterial supply?
If one has a blockage of blood in the basilar artery, in what absolute territory is the arterial supply?
The posterior limb of the internal capsule includes which structure?
The posterior limb of the internal capsule includes which structure?
Why is there little overlap between territories?
Why is there little overlap between territories?
If there is an issue with stroke-like symptoms associated with the lentiform, what is the first location that that occurs?
If there is an issue with stroke-like symptoms associated with the lentiform, what is the first location that that occurs?
A stroke happens, and as a result of blockage, speech and motor control are not working because the arterial supply is not reaching that region; what specific cerebral artery areas would relate to this?
A stroke happens, and as a result of blockage, speech and motor control are not working because the arterial supply is not reaching that region; what specific cerebral artery areas would relate to this?
Which of the following best describes the interaction of vertebrobasilar and internal carotid arteries with the Circle of Willis?
Which of the following best describes the interaction of vertebrobasilar and internal carotid arteries with the Circle of Willis?
Which of the following supplies the thalamus and the internal capsule?
Which of the following supplies the thalamus and the internal capsule?
If one destroys a capillary, what does that imply for the neurons nearby?
If one destroys a capillary, what does that imply for the neurons nearby?
A patient has a lesion on the medial lower side; in what area could that relate with speech disruption?
A patient has a lesion on the medial lower side; in what area could that relate with speech disruption?
If the radial arteries add, what are they adding from?
If the radial arteries add, what are they adding from?
Which has no anastomoses?
Which has no anastomoses?
In which of the ventricles can you find the choroid plexus?
In which of the ventricles can you find the choroid plexus?
What are the tributaries with the internal vertebral plexus?
What are the tributaries with the internal vertebral plexus?
Ultimately where does the the spinal cord drain?
Ultimately where does the the spinal cord drain?
Vertebral arteries move through what areas?
Vertebral arteries move through what areas?
If there is no anastomoses that is vulnerable to perfusion, what is at risk?
If there is no anastomoses that is vulnerable to perfusion, what is at risk?
A patient with a spinal cord injury exhibits impaired motor function and sensory deficits. Imaging reveals compromised blood flow from the vertebral arteries and segmental arteries. Which of the following is MOST likely affected?
A patient with a spinal cord injury exhibits impaired motor function and sensory deficits. Imaging reveals compromised blood flow from the vertebral arteries and segmental arteries. Which of the following is MOST likely affected?
Which type of deficit would MOST likely result from damage to the spinal accessory nerve (CN XI)?
Which type of deficit would MOST likely result from damage to the spinal accessory nerve (CN XI)?
Following a base of skull fracture, a patient presents with hoarseness, weak voice, and difficulty breathing. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
Following a base of skull fracture, a patient presents with hoarseness, weak voice, and difficulty breathing. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
A patient exhibits a loss of gag reflex and difficulty swallowing after a tonsillar abscess. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely involved?
A patient exhibits a loss of gag reflex and difficulty swallowing after a tonsillar abscess. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely involved?
A patient presents with a drooping face, loss of taste on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, and dry eyes. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
A patient presents with a drooping face, loss of taste on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, and dry eyes. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
A patient has difficulty smelling certain odors, but can still detect irritants such as ammonia. Which nerve is MOST likely functioning properly?
A patient has difficulty smelling certain odors, but can still detect irritants such as ammonia. Which nerve is MOST likely functioning properly?
What is a likely outcome involving dysfunction of the muscles of mastication?
What is a likely outcome involving dysfunction of the muscles of mastication?
If there is damage to the trochlear nerve (CN IV), what is a likely outcome?
If there is damage to the trochlear nerve (CN IV), what is a likely outcome?
A person with damage of the optic nerve would most likely experience what?
A person with damage of the optic nerve would most likely experience what?
Which of the following tests is MOST effective for assessing problems related to abduction and adduction of the eye?
Which of the following tests is MOST effective for assessing problems related to abduction and adduction of the eye?
When performing the H-pattern test, if a subject has issues looking laterally, what anatomical structure is most likely impaired?
When performing the H-pattern test, if a subject has issues looking laterally, what anatomical structure is most likely impaired?
The olfactory nerve (CN I) is responsible for detecting certain smells. What is the MOST likely result if damage to the olfactory nerve (CN I) occurs?
The olfactory nerve (CN I) is responsible for detecting certain smells. What is the MOST likely result if damage to the olfactory nerve (CN I) occurs?
Which of the following is MOST likely affected if a lesion occurs to the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)?
Which of the following is MOST likely affected if a lesion occurs to the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)?
Which of the following nerves provides taste sensation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
Which of the following nerves provides taste sensation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
A patient comes in and cannot shrug his shoulders. What is the MOST likely cranial nerve that has been damaged?
A patient comes in and cannot shrug his shoulders. What is the MOST likely cranial nerve that has been damaged?
If a patient is tilting their head, and having problems catching a ball, what cranial nerve has most likely been comprimised?
If a patient is tilting their head, and having problems catching a ball, what cranial nerve has most likely been comprimised?
Which cranial nerve carries taste sensation but NOT sensation to the pharynx?
Which cranial nerve carries taste sensation but NOT sensation to the pharynx?
With damage to the facial nerve, which gland would be MOST affected?
With damage to the facial nerve, which gland would be MOST affected?
What would happen if you move Caudal through the midbrain?
What would happen if you move Caudal through the midbrain?
If there is a deficit in the upper part of face, but normal control of the lower part of the face, what is the location of the brain injury?
If there is a deficit in the upper part of face, but normal control of the lower part of the face, what is the location of the brain injury?
A patient exhibits asymmetrical palate lift when saying 'AHHH'. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely compromised?
A patient exhibits asymmetrical palate lift when saying 'AHHH'. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely compromised?
When trochlear nerve lesion, someone can not look at what?
When trochlear nerve lesion, someone can not look at what?
Which cranial nerve does NOT carry taste (SVA) fibers from the tongue?
Which cranial nerve does NOT carry taste (SVA) fibers from the tongue?
Which cranial nerve provides motor innervation to the stylopharyngeus?
Which cranial nerve provides motor innervation to the stylopharyngeus?
Which cranial nerve's primary function is olfaction?
Which cranial nerve's primary function is olfaction?
A lesion affecting the greater petrosal nerve would MOST directly impact the function of which gland?
A lesion affecting the greater petrosal nerve would MOST directly impact the function of which gland?
Which cranial nerve carries general sensory information AND innervates muscles of mastication?
Which cranial nerve carries general sensory information AND innervates muscles of mastication?
A patient presents with an inability to elevate the upper eyelid. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
A patient presents with an inability to elevate the upper eyelid. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for innervating the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for innervating the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles?
Damage to which nerve would MOST likely result in difficulty swallowing?
Damage to which nerve would MOST likely result in difficulty swallowing?
After a head injury, a patient reports a loss of smell. Which of the following is the MOST likely location of the damage?
After a head injury, a patient reports a loss of smell. Which of the following is the MOST likely location of the damage?
Which cranial nerve function may have been impacted if a patient has been experiencing sensitivity to sound?
Which cranial nerve function may have been impacted if a patient has been experiencing sensitivity to sound?
A patient presents with paralysis of the lower face on one side, but retains the ability to wrinkle their forehead. Where is the MOST likely location of the lesion?
A patient presents with paralysis of the lower face on one side, but retains the ability to wrinkle their forehead. Where is the MOST likely location of the lesion?
A patient exhibits a deviation of the tongue to one side upon protrusion. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
A patient exhibits a deviation of the tongue to one side upon protrusion. Which cranial nerve is MOST likely affected?
After undergoing thyroid surgery, a patient's voice becomes hoarse due to injury of which nerve?
After undergoing thyroid surgery, a patient's voice becomes hoarse due to injury of which nerve?
Damage to which cranial nerve results to impaired gag reflex?
Damage to which cranial nerve results to impaired gag reflex?
Following a stroke, imaging reveals damage in the rostral medulla. Which of the following symptoms is MOST likely to be present?
Following a stroke, imaging reveals damage in the rostral medulla. Which of the following symptoms is MOST likely to be present?
What is the composition of the cranial nerve associated with facial expressions?
What is the composition of the cranial nerve associated with facial expressions?
What are the expected symptoms of a patient who suffers from Lateral Medullary Syndrome?
What are the expected symptoms of a patient who suffers from Lateral Medullary Syndrome?
What would be the primary symptoms when someone is diagnosed with Medial Medullary Syndrome?
What would be the primary symptoms when someone is diagnosed with Medial Medullary Syndrome?
Which cranial nerve is impacted with the ability to extend your eye out?
Which cranial nerve is impacted with the ability to extend your eye out?
What cranial nerve controls the Superior Oblique?
What cranial nerve controls the Superior Oblique?
Which of the following cranial nerves does NOT exit through the cavernous sinus?
Which of the following cranial nerves does NOT exit through the cavernous sinus?
Which nerve root would lead to Torticollis if the patient's neck is laterally flexed to the right?
Which nerve root would lead to Torticollis if the patient's neck is laterally flexed to the right?
You are testing a patients elevation and depression for Clinical test of extraocular muscles. Which ABducted eye are you referring to?
You are testing a patients elevation and depression for Clinical test of extraocular muscles. Which ABducted eye are you referring to?
What symptoms related to taste would you expect to see on a patient with damage primarily done to CN VII?
What symptoms related to taste would you expect to see on a patient with damage primarily done to CN VII?
What is the purpose of the gag reflex?
What is the purpose of the gag reflex?
If you saw an asymmetrical palate, which nerve would you be most concerned about?
If you saw an asymmetrical palate, which nerve would you be most concerned about?
Your patient reports that all of a sudden they are unable to smell coffee, but no other smells seem to be affected. Which cranial nerve division or structure may likely be the cause?
Your patient reports that all of a sudden they are unable to smell coffee, but no other smells seem to be affected. Which cranial nerve division or structure may likely be the cause?
Upon exiting the cranial vault, through which structure does the facial nerve travel to reach the face?
Upon exiting the cranial vault, through which structure does the facial nerve travel to reach the face?
A patient comes in reporting a loss of taste on the posterior 1/3 of the tongue, with the rest of the functions normal. Which of the following is most likely damaged?
A patient comes in reporting a loss of taste on the posterior 1/3 of the tongue, with the rest of the functions normal. Which of the following is most likely damaged?
During an otolaryngology rotation, you observe a surgeon removing a tumor that is obstructing the stylomastoid foramen. Which of the following deficits would you expect to observe postoperatively?
During an otolaryngology rotation, you observe a surgeon removing a tumor that is obstructing the stylomastoid foramen. Which of the following deficits would you expect to observe postoperatively?
A lesion to what nerve produces both loss of function to the trapezius and sternocleidmastoid?
A lesion to what nerve produces both loss of function to the trapezius and sternocleidmastoid?
Which of the following cranial nerve deficits most directly results in a loss of the afferent limb of the corneal reflex?
Which of the following cranial nerve deficits most directly results in a loss of the afferent limb of the corneal reflex?
A patient is unable to smile and close their left eye, but is able to wrinkle their forehead. Based on these symptoms and signs, but where would you most likely find this type of lesion?
A patient is unable to smile and close their left eye, but is able to wrinkle their forehead. Based on these symptoms and signs, but where would you most likely find this type of lesion?
Following skull trauma, a patient notices that they can no longer smell certain things in quite the sense that the were before. Based on this information, which structure has MOST likely been damaged?
Following skull trauma, a patient notices that they can no longer smell certain things in quite the sense that the were before. Based on this information, which structure has MOST likely been damaged?
A patient presents with a cluster of deficits, including difficulty with chewing, impaired sensation over the forehead and cheek, and decreased lacrimation. Which of the following is the MOST likely single lesion location?
A patient presents with a cluster of deficits, including difficulty with chewing, impaired sensation over the forehead and cheek, and decreased lacrimation. Which of the following is the MOST likely single lesion location?
A patient is exhibiting signs of Superior Oblique damage. When they focus on a certain field of vision they have to compensate by tilting their head to one side or another to focus on what they want to see. What type of movement does that tilting of the head provide for their focus?
A patient is exhibiting signs of Superior Oblique damage. When they focus on a certain field of vision they have to compensate by tilting their head to one side or another to focus on what they want to see. What type of movement does that tilting of the head provide for their focus?
Consider a patient who has lost motor function and sensory feedback from the anterior 2/3rds of their tongue, whilst having the back 1/3rd intact. Based upon this, what specific structure is MOST likely impacted?
Consider a patient who has lost motor function and sensory feedback from the anterior 2/3rds of their tongue, whilst having the back 1/3rd intact. Based upon this, what specific structure is MOST likely impacted?
After a sudden basilar artery stroke, a patient presents with bilateral loss of motor function to the muscles of facial expression, loss of corneal reflex, and loss of abduction of both eyes. However, they are still fully conscious and can blink. As such, what region of the brain can we say may be spared by this type of deficit?
After a sudden basilar artery stroke, a patient presents with bilateral loss of motor function to the muscles of facial expression, loss of corneal reflex, and loss of abduction of both eyes. However, they are still fully conscious and can blink. As such, what region of the brain can we say may be spared by this type of deficit?
A patient comes in after a sharp base of skull fracture near but sparing the foramen lacerum . They exhibit several of the following symptoms, being hoarseness, changes to throat musculature, a lack of sensation affecting the gag relex. This indicates damage to which set of sensory and motor branches?
A patient comes in after a sharp base of skull fracture near but sparing the foramen lacerum . They exhibit several of the following symptoms, being hoarseness, changes to throat musculature, a lack of sensation affecting the gag relex. This indicates damage to which set of sensory and motor branches?
Which cranial nerve has the highest number of functional modalities?
Which cranial nerve has the highest number of functional modalities?
A lesion on the left abducens nerve has caused lateral rectus paralysis. Which way do the eyes deviate in the primary position (looking straight ahead)
A lesion on the left abducens nerve has caused lateral rectus paralysis. Which way do the eyes deviate in the primary position (looking straight ahead)
Flashcards
Function of the brain?
Function of the brain?
Detect and respond to the environment by integrating and coordinating inputs (sensory) and controlling outputs (motor).
What is a Nerve net?
What is a Nerve net?
A diffuse network of interconnected neurons without centralisation/consolidation or cephalisation.
Bilateral Nerve Cords
Bilateral Nerve Cords
Longitudinal bilateral consolidation of neurons with cephalisation.
Single Nerve Cord
Single Nerve Cord
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Dorsal Neural Tube
Dorsal Neural Tube
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Neurulation
Neurulation
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Primary Vesicles
Primary Vesicles
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Secondary Vesicles
Secondary Vesicles
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Spina bifida Occulta
Spina bifida Occulta
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Meningocele
Meningocele
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meningomyelocele
meningomyelocele
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Myelocele
Myelocele
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Dorsal vs ventral spinal cord
Dorsal vs ventral spinal cord
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Study Notes
Functional Cranial Nerve Anatomy and Reflexes
- The presentation focuses on functional cranial nerve anatomy and reflexes.
- Tom Wilson is the presenter, with contact details at [email protected].
- The presentation references several anatomy and embryology resources.
Goal
- The goal is to revise cranial nerve components, their testing, injury, and integration with a central neural aspect.
Outline
- Material related to cranial nerves covers intro to Head and Neck anatomy, as well as autonomic nervous system of Head and Neck
- Also covered: Anatomy of staring at things, Development of the brain, the skull, skull and cranial nerve lab class
- The material discusses mouth and nose lecture histology of the tongue and salivary glands
- Pharynx and swallowing, Abdominal viscera lecture and lab concerning the vagus nerve.
Outcomes
- Integration of previously learned material with functional application and context is expected.
- Understanding the composition of each cranial nerve, structures they innervate, and how to test their function is an outcome.
- Applying this understanding to visual representations of cranial nerve lesions is another learning outcome.
- Preparation for clinical skills class assessing cranial nerve functions is the final learning outcome.
Things Not Included
- The presentation will not cover every component of every nerve; it will not go through all details of conditions.
- It will also omit specific details of Cranial Nerves II, III, and VIII.
Questions to Consider
- What is the composition of each cranial nerve and their central nuclei? What structures do they travel through to exit cranium?
- How would a person's posture/appearance change if a muscle is affected?
- Five cranial nerves relate to the tongue (V/VII/IX/X/XII) and 6 cranial nerves that relate to the eye, its muscles, and its reflexes (II/III/IV/V/VI/VII).
Nerve Types
- General Somatic Afferent (GSA) provides specific localised general sensations.
- General Visceral Afferent (GVA) are not localised, vague sensations related to the gut tube.
- Special Somatic/Visceral Afferent (SSA/SVA) relates to the visceral tube or body wall.
- General Somatic Efferent (GSE) innervates skeletal muscle derived from somites.
- General Visceral Efferent (GVE) is autonomic and affects smooth muscle and glands.
- Special Visceral Efferent (SVE) innervates skeletal muscle derived from a pharyngeal arch.
Cranial Nerve Composition Chart (Summary)
- CN I (Olfactory): SVA for smell.
- CN II (Optic): SSA for vision.
- CN III (Oculomotor): GSE to medial/superior/inferior rectus, levator palpebrae superioris, and inferior oblique muscles, GVE to constrictor pupillae and ciliary muscle (via ciliary ganglion).
- CN IV (Trochlear): GSE to superior oblique muscle.
- CN V (Trigeminal): GSA for face, eye, mucous membranes of mouth/nose, skin of ear, and anterior 2/3 of tongue. SVE for muscles of mastication.
- CN VI (Abducens): GSE to lateral rectus muscle.
- CN VII (Facial): GSA for skin of the ear, SVA for taste (anterior 2/3 tongue), GVE to lacrimal/sublingual/submandibular glands, SVE to muscles of facial expression.
- CN VIII (Vestibulocochlear): SSA for hearing and balance.
- CN IX (Glossopharyngeal): GSA for middle ear/auditory tube/post 1/3 tongue/oropharynx, GVA for carotid sinus/body, SVA for taste (post 1/3 tongue), GVE to parotid salivary gland (via otic ganglion), SVE to stylopharyngeus.
- CN X (Vagus): GSA for skin/auditory tube/larynx/laryngopharynx/oesophagus, GVA for thorax/abdominal viscera, SVA for taste (epiglottis), GVE to thoracic/abdominal organs, SVE to palate/pharynx/larynx.
- CN XI (Accessory): GSE to trapezius and sternocleidomastoid.
- CN XII (Hypoglossal): GSE to tongue muscles.
CN I – Olfactory
- Composition: SVA
- Not All smells have the same ability to be perceived
- Olfactory system detects vanilla, lemon, freshly ground coffee, and tobacco
- Ammonia, smelling salts, menthol, camphor, and alcohol are irritants sensed by other nerves in the nose
- Damage or a lesion can occur during trauma, can be caused by tumours, or Meningitis.
- It can also occur during viral infection (COVID-19), or due to age, and is associated with Alzheimer's disease
CN.V: Trigeminal
- The composition is not what is expected as it include muscles of mastication
- GSA: Face, nose, mouth, and cornea
- V1: Ophthalmic division supplies Forehead, cornea, frontal and ethmoid sinuses
- V2: Maxillary division supplies Cheek, nasal cavity, maxillary sinus, superior half of oral cavity and upper teeth
- V3: Mandibular division supplies Chin, jaw, parotid region, inferior half of oral cavity, anterior 2/3 of tongue, and lower teeth
- SVE: Muscles of mastication, tensor tympani
Observations if dysfunction/lesion/damage/infection present
- Can cause Neuralgia through one or more divisions
- Can cause Tooth pain (real or referred)
- Can cause sensitivity to sound: Tensor tympani
- Can cause Absence of corneal reflex
- Can cause Atrophy of temporalis/masseter/pterygoids (uni/bi) -> loss of bite strength and protraction
Causes
- Strokes, trauma, or tumors can be sources
- Base of skull fracture, cavernous sinus thrombosis, diabetic neuropathy, herpes zoster (shingles) and simplex, and Multiple Sclerosis
- Cerebello-pontine tumours are a cause
Brainstem
- Brainstem is a modified spinal cord
- Peripheral targets can be localised, but nuclei are not
- Jaw and face
- Eyes
- It is important to Disconnect between central and peripheral aspects
Lateral Medullary Syndrome
- Causes dizziness.
- Causes Dysphonia and dysphagia.
- Causes Loss of taste.
- Causes Ipsilateral Horner's syndrome.
- Causes Ipsilateral limb ataxia.
- Causes Impaired pain and thermal sensation.
- Impaired pain and thermal sensation on the right side of the body and trunk, and the left side of their face.
Medial Medullary Syndrome
- Occlusion of median aspects of anterior spinal, vertebral, and/or basilar arteries is the cause.
- Results in contralateral paralysis of limbs.
- Results in contralateral reduction in fine touch, vibration, proprioception.
- Results in ipsilateral tongue deviation.
CN.XI & XII: Spinal Accessory and Hypoglossal
- CN.XI SVE: Trapezius and sternocleidomastoid.
- CN.XII GSE: Muscle of the tongue (derived from occipital somites).
Observations if dysfunction/lesion present
- Atrophy
- Weakness
- XI: Pectoral girdle posture
- XII: Deviation towards affected side
Causes of damage to CN.XI/XII:
- Trauma to neck / base of skull fracture (posterior cranial fossa injury)
- Surgical damage
Damage to the larynx, pharynx, & base of skull fractures.
- Laryngeal nerve injuries: Thyroid surgery most common
- Superior Laryngeal Nerve: cricothyroid dysfunction, voice changes in presentation of cases
- Recurrent laryngeal nerve: Innervates internal laryngeal muscles; Presentation of Hoarseness, weak voice, breathing difficulties, aspiration risk
CN.IX: Glossopharyngeal
- Identical Composition as vagus and facial nerves
- GSA: Tympanic membrane
- GVA: pharynx (includes post. 1/3 tongue), mastoid air cells, carotid body and sinus
- SVA: Post. 1/3 tongue
- GVE: Lesser petrosal to otic ganglion -> Parotid salivary gland secretion
- SVE: Stylopharyngeus
Observations if dysfunction/lesion present
- Loss of gag reflex
- Possible dry mouth
- Loss of some taste
- Can have issues swallowing food without chewing it very fine
- Causes:
- Base of skull trauma/surgical damage (tonsil/middle ear)
- Infection (tonsillar abscess/otitis media)
CN.X: Vagus (notes)
- Composition: Same as facial and glossopharyngeal
- GSA: Skin of the ear (external meatus and concha)
- GVA: Larynx, thoracic and fore/midgut abdominal organs
- SVA: Taste around epiglottis and its base
- GVE: Nothing in the head, thoracic & fore/midgut abdominal organs
- SVE: Muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, and larynx
Observations if dysfunction/lesion present
- Palatal drop and deviated uvula
- Asymmetrical palate lift when saying AHHHH
- (Would the palate move if both vagus nerves were caput?)
- Horse voice if recurrent laryngeal nerve is lesioned
- (Another downside to aortic aneurysm...)
- GIT issues (would things go faster or slower?)
- Tachycardia, why?
Gag reflex
- Afferent/sensory: Triggered by bolus contacting oropharynx (CN.IX; GVA)
- Efferent/motor: Longitudinal muscles contract (CN.X; SVE)
- Raises the larynx, which helps to fold epiglottis and seal the airway
causes
-BoS fracture -Parapharyngeal space tumours -Surgical injury (thyroid/lymph node dissection) -Aortic arch aneurysm
CN.VII: Facial
- Same Composition as glossopharyngeal and vagus (-GVA)
- GSA: Skin of the ear
- SVA: Ant. 2/3 of tongue (Chorda tympani), Palate (greater petrosal)
- GVE: Sublingual/submandibular salivary glands via submandibular ganglion, lacrimal gland via pterygopalatine ganglion
- SVE: Muscles of facial expression, stapedius
Observations if dysfunction/lesion present
- Facial paralysis -> Droopy face
- Loss of taste on tongue and palate: chorda tympani
- Neuralgia around the ear
- No blink response to corneal reflex, but felt the touch
- Dry mouth/eyes: greater petrosal & chorda tympani nerve loss
- Sensitivity to sound: loss of stapedius
- Causes: strokes, trauma, tumours...
- Bell's palsy
- Parotid tumours
- Middle ear surgery damage
- Otitis media
Salivary gland wiring: Parasympathetic innervation pathways
Parotid gland:
- Pre-synaptic neurone: Lesser/small petrosal nerve, Branch of glossopharyngeal nerve (CN.IX) Ganglion: Otic (found below foramen ovale) Post-synaptic hitchhikes with - Auriculotemporal nerve Branch- of mandibular division of trigeminal (CN.V3)
Sublingual and submandibular:
- Pre-synaptic neurone - Chorda tympani, and a Branch of facial nerve (CN.VII)
- Ganglion is the submandibular post-synaptic hitchhikes with Lingual nerve. Branch of mandibular division of trigeminal (CN.V3)
Extraocular Muscles
- Superior Oblique will turn the eye "down and out" acting alone
- Trochlear nerve lesion: Can't look at the tip of your nose
- These muscles NEVER ACT ALONE -> Inferior rectus works too
- Must cancel out intorsion and extorsion The same idea exists for the inferior oblique and superior rectus mm. -Optic axis -Orbital axis -Equator
- -- When 1 is ~in-line with 2 =
- -- When 2 is ~in-line with 3 =
- -- Reading a book?
- -- Long vision?
H-Pattern Test
- This is a Clinical test of extraocular muscles, the subject follows your finger.
- Medially and laterally to test pure abduction and adduction
- On an Abducted eye go up/down to test elevation/depression
- On an ADducted eye go up/down to test elevation/depression
Cranial nerve reflexes: Know the fundamentals
- What is what's the story if you can feel but not blink?
- Corneal reflex
- Afferent: CNV
- -How does that make any sense at all? -Efferent: CNVII Long ciliary nerve
- Afferent: CNV
- Sclera Ciliary body Iris Cornea Nasociliary nerve Orbicularis oculi muscle
- Orbital part Palpebral part Sensory root Sympathetic root Lateral palpebral ligament Short ciliary nerves Ciliary ganglion Motor (parasympathetic) root
The Cavernous Sinus
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- Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
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- Trochlea nerve (CN IV)
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- Ophthalmic nerve (CN V¹)
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- Maxillary nerve (CN V²)
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- Abducens nerve (CN VI)
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- Internal Carotid artery Clinical significance
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- Anteriovenous fistula, meningiomas, heamangiomas, schwannomas, pituitary adenoma, cellulitis, all the above
Additional Notes
- A 70-year-old patient, Wilma, experienced a loss of smell after a fall, but could still smell some odors.
- The significance of facial asymmetry should be noted.
- Brainstem ischemia is referenced following a presentation of following symptoms: Dizziness, Dysphonia and dysphagia, Loss of taste, Ipsilateral Horner’s syndrome, Ipsilateral limb ataxia, Impaired pain and thermal sensation
- A teenager with vision issues developed double vision when trying to look to the right,.
- A patient had a small bleed in the midbrain at the level of the inferior colliculus.
- Ptosis and Miosis observed across patients
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