Clinical Psychology: Training Models

Clinical Psychology

• Lightner Witmer was the first to use the term clinical psychology in print.
• To become a clinical psychologist, one must earn a doctoral degree in clinical psychology.

Training Models

• The Boulder Model of training is also known as the scientist-practitioner model.
• A clinical psychology graduate program adhering to the Boulder Model emphasizes clinical training and minimizes research training.
• A graduate from a Vail Model training program is most likely to earn a PsyD in a clinical setting.
• Students keen on researching psychotherapy interventions should apply to a clinical scientist program.
• Building positive relationships with professors for strong recommendation letters can improve the chances of being accepted into a clinical psychology graduate program.
• Personal statements for clinical psychology programs should avoid overly personal or revealing information.
• Predoctoral interns have not yet earned their doctoral degree, distinguishing them from postdoctoral interns.

Work Settings and Specializations

• Since the 1980s, university psychology departments have been the second most common work setting for clinical psychologists.
• Professional counselors, compared to clinical psychologists, typically earn a master's degree and specialize in career, school, or addiction counseling.
• School psychologists primarily work with children and their support networks.

Historical Figures

• William Tuke was an early advocate for humane treatment of the mentally ill in England.
• Philippe Pinel was an early advocate for humane treatment of the mentally ill in France.

Psychology Graduates and Clinics

• In the late 1800s, most psychology graduates worked in psychology, training the next generation of practitioners.
• The first psychological clinic was founded by Lightner Witmer.
• The first patients treated in a psychological clinic were primarily children with school-related problems.
• Lightner Witmer founded the journal "The Psychological Clinic".
• Lightner Witmer originally defined clinical psychology as related to medicine, education, and social work.

Mental Illness Classification

• Emil Kraepelin's classification of mental illness included exogenous (external causes) and endogenous (internal causes) disorders.
• Emil Kraepelin coined the term "dementia praecox" to describe a cluster of symptoms similar to what is now known as schizophrenia

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)

• The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952.
• The American Psychiatric Association publishes the DSM.
• The DSM-5 includes key aspects of culture relevant to diagnosis and assessment.
• The DSM includes a glossary of cultural concepts of distress where psychological problems are observed in groups from various parts of the world.
• "Susto" is an example of a culture-bound syndrome listed in the DSM.
• Taijin kyofusho involves an anxiety disorder where individuals fear offending others with their appearance or behavior.

Intelligence Theories and Testing

• Charles Spearman's theory suggests that intelligence is a general ability that influences various skills.
• Alfred Binet created a test of intelligence to help the French school system determine which students should qualify for special services.
• David Wechsler developed the first intelligence test.
• The Rorschach Inkblot Method is a projective personality test.
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) involves storytelling based on interpersonal scenes.
• The MMPI is an objective test of personality.

Psychotherapy and Treatment

• The most popular singular psychotherapy orientation among clinical psychologists today is cognitive.
• The field of clinical psychology began to emphasize psychotherapy significantly around 1940-1950.
• The behavioral approach to psychotherapy emphasizes empirical methodology and the study of observable symptoms.
• From roughly 1900 to 1950, the treatment of mental illness was conducted primarily by physicians.
• Clinical psychology, during the earliest years of the profession was characterized more than any other activity, by the assessment of intelligence.
• Exposure plus response prevention is a manualized therapy with empirical support for obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• Evidence-based practice in clinical psychology has also been referred to as empirically supported treatments.
• The term evidence-based practice includes psychological treatment methods and factors related to service providers and clients.
• Some clinical psychologists criticize the DSM because certain disorders' symptoms resemble normal behavior, leading to concerns about the overexpansion of mental disorders.
• Cybertherapy is as effective as in-person therapy.
• Guidelines for the use of new technologies in clinical psychology include obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality through encryption, and knowing emergency resources for online clients, except allowing clients to decide whether to use secure methods.
• When selecting clients for psychotherapy research, researchers typically choose "textbook cases" of the disorder being studied.
• In 1952, Hans Eysenck made the (now refuted) claim that psychotherapy had no proven efficacy.
• A major contribution to the WWI was the creation of tests to measure intelligence of recruits.
• Advantages of the emergence of manualized therapies with empirical support include the establishment of minimal levels of competence for the field.

Multiculturalism

• Multiculturalism, as described by Pedersen, is the "fourth force" in psychology.
• The four major "forces" in psychology in historical order are psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, and multiculturalism.
• APA divisions dedicated to cultural issues, such as the Society for the Psychology of Women and the Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity.
• Cultural self-awareness is important for all psychologists, regardless of their own background.
• The etic perspective in psychology emphasizes universal similarities among all people.
• When treating a culturally diverse client, therapy should be adapted to the client's cultural values and experiences.
• A psychologist who focuses on individual uniqueness while also considering cultural similarities uses the tripartite model of identity.
• Adapting to a new cultural environment while balancing elements of one's original culture is called acculturation.

Additional Key Points

• Assumes tests that people reveal their personalities by their responses to ambiguous stimuli.
• Tests offer straightforward scoring and interpretation guidelines and are often in multiple-choice or true-false format.
• No single "best method" has emerged for training clinical psychologists to be culturally competent.