Climate, Weather, and Biodiversity

Climate and Biodiversity

• Climate relates to long term atmospheric conditions over hundreds/thousands of years.
• Weather refers to short range daily changes in precipitation, wind speed, humidity & cloud cover.
• Global climate patterns are affected by solar energy and Earth's rotation
• Other factors include:
  • Air and water circulation
  • Atmospheric gases
  • Topography.

Air And Ocean Circulation

• Distributes heat/precipitation across the globe
• Uneven solar heating of Earth's surface
• Earth's axis creates Coriolis Effect.
• These are the factors that affect air circulation in the lower atmosphere.
• Prevailing winds with the Coriolis Effect drive ocean currents
• ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation):
  • Changes weather patterns for 1-2 years.
  • Happens when Pacific winds weaken/change direction.
  • Occurs over at least two-thirds of the planet.

Greenhouse Gases

• Solar energy flows into the earth.
• Greenhouse gases absorb some solar energy, so the lower atmosphere warms
• Human activities like production and burning fossil fuels and clearing crops increases climate change

Earth's Surface & Local Climate

• Mountains interrupt wind flow and affect storms, causing rain shadow effect
• Cities have microclimates because they absorb heat.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

• Biome & ecosystem formation stems from precipitation & temperature differences over time
• Human activities affect ecosystem and economic services differently across biomes.
• Climate & vegetation varies with latitude & elevation.
• The types of deserts are:
  • Tropical
  • Temperate
  • Cold
• Desert ecosystems are fragile because of the lack of rainfall and slow plant growth
• The types of grasslands include:
  • Tropic
  • Temperate
  • Cold
• The three major forest types:
  • Tropical
  • Temperate (deciduous and coastal coniferous forests)
  • Cold (northern coniferous forests in higher latitudes)
• Forest-covered mountains are important for fresh water.
• Mountains are islands of biodiversity, often w/ species found nowhere else.
• About 60% of terrestrial ecosystems are degraded.

Marine Ecosystems

• Disruption to vital ecosystem & economic services are caused by human activity.
• Marine biomes (aquatic life zones) are either salt or fresh water ecosystems
• Salinity determines biodiversity in aquatic biomes.
• Marine life zones include:
  • Oceans
  • Estuaries
  • Coastal wetlands
  • Coral reefs
• Freshwater life zones consist of:
  • Lakes
  • River
  • Streams
  • Wetlands
• Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, food, light & nutrients determine abundance/location of marine organisms.
• The major marine life zones are:
  • Coastal zones (estuary and coastal wetlands)
  • The open ocean
  • The ocean bottom
• Coastal aquatic ecosystems provide numerous services, for example:
  • Filter pollutants/sediments.
  • Habitats/nursery sites.
  • Storm/erosion reduction via waves and water storage

Ocean Zones

• Open sea is beyond continental shelves divided into:
  • Euphotic Zone: brightly lit, has phytoplankton for photosynthesis, and large fish
  • Bathyal Zone: dimly lit, no photosynthesis, has smaller animals
  • Abyssal Zone: dark, very cold
• Human activities disrupt the freshwater environments just as they disrupt the oceans

Freshwater Systems

• Freshwater aquatic zones have:
  • Standing bodies of water (lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands)
  • Flowing systems (streams and rivers)
• Lakes are either
  • Oligotrophic: deep & steep-sided w/ little nutrient supply.
  • Eutrophic: shallow & murky w/ large nutrient supply
• Cultural eutrophication is a process with human-generated pollution & agricultural runoff
• Streams & rivers carry large volumes of water through source, transition, & floodplain zones
• Flowing streams shape land by erosion, cutting valleys, creating sand, gravel & soil
• Deltas form at river mouths from upstream sediment to form wetlands.
• Freshwater inland wetlands act as vital ecosystem service providers
• They filter waste/pollution
• Limit flooding/erosion
• Sustain streamflow
• Recharge groundwater
• Maintain biodiversity.
• Provide recreation for humans.
• Freshwater systems are disrupted/degraded by dams, canals and flood control levees/dikes
• Pollution is added from urban/agricultural sources
• Wetlands are drained/filled for crops and buildings.

Human Influences on the Environment & Species Extinction

• Human population growth increases species extinction rates
• By the end of the 21st-century extinction rate may be 10,000 times higher.
• Habitat loss drives species loss
• Climate change and ocean acidification are issues
• Environments were destroyed/degraded as people spread across earth
• 25-50% of world's identified species could become extinct by 21st century
• There is the possibility of a sixth mass extinction
• Protecting keystone species is important to ecosystems

Protecting Species

• Species are classified as:
  • Endangered: few survivors, faces extinction
  • Threatened: has enough individuals, but faces danger in the short term
• Species characteristics like low reproduction rates increase extinction risks
• Ecosystem services provide food, lumber, and economic resources
• HIPCCO factors accelerates species extinction:
  • Habitat Destruction/Degradation/Fragmentation
  • Invasive Species
  • Population Growth
  • Pollution
  • Climate Change
  • Overexploitation
• Habitat fragmentation limits species and ecosystems
• Transfer of species from country to country increases extinction

Species Conservation

• National and international treaties to sustain wild species
• Wildlife refuges protect species
• Seed banks, botanical gardens preserve plants.
• Some farms raise endangered species for sale to reduce pressure on them
• Zoos & aquariums use these methods:
  • Egg pulling and captive breeding
  • Artificial insemination
  • Embryo transfer
  • Use of incubators
  • Cross-fostering
• There aren't enough spaces for species.
• There are difficult questions involved in saving species, including whether to focus on species protection or ecosystem protection, and how to allocate limited resources.

Forests

• Forest ecosystems serve economic benefits
• They are threatened by cutting, burning, and climate change,.
• Old growth forests have regenerated and remain relatively undisturbed for 200 years
• Second growth forests result from ecological succession.
• Tree plantations are managed farms
• Forests reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis
• Forests provide habitat and sustenance for species and humans
• Drugs can be derived from it

Harvesting trees

• Selective Cutting: Cutting intermediate or mature in small groups
• Clear Cutting: Removing all trees from an area at once.
• Strip cutting: removing trees in sections
• Tropical forests are disappearing rapidly
• Deforestation is accelerating in Africa/S. America/Southeast Asia
• The economic value of ecosystem services are key for sustaining forests
• Removing subsidies decreases deforestation
• Protecting old growth forests allows for harvesting trees
• Planting new forests is also important
• Encouraging tree planting programs and reducing harm from forest fires is also important

Grasslands

• Grassland productivity can be sustained by controlling livestock and restoring rangeland
• Overgrazing harms roots
• Managements include rotational stock, herbicides and destroying non-native plants

Parks & Natural Reserves

• Existing natural reserves/parks need protection.
• Parks that are are too small face bioinvaders
• Parks are also degraded from popularity and illegal wood, hunting, logging or mining
• Undevoloped lands can be preserved as wilderness
• Biodiversity can be sustained in terrestrial ecosystems by protecting hotspots

Sustaining Biodiversity

• Identifying and protecting biodiversity is important
• Use restoration ecology
• Reconciliation ecology can help
• Inventory all of earth's species
• Help landowners
• Improve sustainable development
• Protect global hotspots

Damage & Ecosystems

• Earth's ecosystems can be repair through ecological restoration
• Create artificial ecosystems
• Use scientific strategies:
  • Identify causes
  • Stop degradation and erosion
  • Restore keystone species
• Reconciliation Ecology, sustainable forms of ecotourism protect local wildlife

Aquatic Biodiversity

• Marine & coastal ecosystems are damaged by human activity
• Water temperature increased and acidification
• Marine biodiversity is declining
• Point and non-point pollution
• Overfishing and invasive species
• Marine ecosystem can be sustained by protected ecosystems

Seafood & Water Management

• Overfishing has led to the collapse of major fisheries
• Expanding population puts increasing pressure
• Mapping aquatic biodiversity helps reduce this damage
• Managing waste from industry, livestock, homes pollutes water
• Governments are needed to solve this problem