Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases

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Questions and Answers

Explain how water vapor feedback illustrates positive climate feedback.

Higher temperatures increase water vapor in the atmosphere, which traps more heat, leading to further temperature rises.

What is the significance of the ice-albedo feedback in climate dynamics?

As ice melts, less sunlight is reflected away, increasing heat absorption and further accelerating ice melt.

Describe the roles of the IPCC in addressing climate change.

The IPCC assesses scientific research on climate change to provide comprehensive reports that guide policymakers in decision-making.

Identify and explain two observed changes in the climate system.

Warming temperatures and rising sea levels due to melting glaciers reflect significant shifts in the Earth's climate. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes social optimum from market equilibrium?

Social optimum accounts for externalities, aiming for a balance that maximizes social welfare, unlike market equilibrium which focuses solely on demand and supply. Signup and view all the answers

How do external costs affect third parties in economic transactions?

External costs, or negative externalities, impose unintended burdens on third parties, such as health impacts from pollution. Signup and view all the answers

What might be the consequence of an open access equilibrium in an economy?

An open access equilibrium results in a situation where the total revenue equals total costs, leading to zero net revenue and potential overexploitation of resources. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the implication of ocean acidification as a result of climate change.

Ocean acidification, caused by excess CO₂ absorption, lowers ocean pH, affecting marine life and ecosystems. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean: internalising externalities in a market economy?

To incorporate external costs or benefits into market prices. Signup and view all the answers

Describe how a Pigovian tax functions in addressing negative externalities.

A Pigovian tax directly targets the cost of the externality by imposing a fee equivalent to the external cost. Signup and view all the answers

What role does property rights play in the Coase Theorem?

Property rights are essential as they allow parties to negotiate solutions to externalities without government intervention. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'optimal pollution'.

Optimal pollution occurs when the marginal social benefit of production equals the marginal social cost, including external costs. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Tragedy of the Commons illustrate the issue of shared resources?

It shows that individuals acting in their self-interest can deplete shared resources, detrimental to long-term interests. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Cap-and-Trade systems in managing pollution?

Cap-and-Trade systems allocate a limited number of permits for pollution, allowing companies to trade these permits. Signup and view all the answers

In what way do subsidies for clean technology address market failure?

They provide financial incentives for companies to transition from polluting technologies to cleaner energy sources. Signup and view all the answers

How does an increase in demand affect the concept of optimal pollution?

An increase in demand can lead to a rise in optimal pollution levels, as more production typically results in higher emissions. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by a resource being 'subtractable' in the context of common resources?

A resource is 'subtractable' if the consumption by one individual reduces the availability of that resource for others. Signup and view all the answers

According to Feeny, what key factors influence the success of different management options for common resources?

The success depends on resource characteristics like excludability and subtractability, as well as socio-economic conditions and enforcement abilities. Signup and view all the answers

What are some successful management principles Ostrom identifies for communities managing common resources?

Successful management principles include having clear boundaries, fair rules, monitoring, and conflict resolution systems. Signup and view all the answers

How do Hardin's and Ostrom's views on collective action differ?

Hardin believes collective action is impossible without external intervention, while Ostrom asserts that communities can self-organize effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What does Hardin propose as solutions for managing resources, and how does this differ from Ostrom's approach?

Hardin proposes top-down solutions like privatization or government intervention, whereas Ostrom advocates for bottom-up, community-focused solutions. Signup and view all the answers

What challenges do larger or global resources, such as oceans, pose according to Ostrom?

Larger resources require multi-level cooperation and face challenges in effective management due to their scale. Signup and view all the answers

How does Ostrom's perspective differ from Hardin's regarding human behavior in managing common resources?

Ostrom believes that people can cooperate and establish norms, while Hardin assumes individuals act purely out of self-interest. Signup and view all the answers

What is ecological overshoot, and what are its main consequences?

Ecological overshoot occurs when humanity's demand on nature exceeds the planet's ability to regenerate resources, leading to consequences like climate change, ocean acidification, and biodiversity loss. Signup and view all the answers

How does GDP differ from GPI in measuring economic success?

GDP measures total economic output without accounting for negative externalities like pollution, while GPI includes these negatives and adds social factors like volunteer work and inequality, providing a fuller picture of well-being. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the GPI play in promoting sustainable policies?

The GPI promotes sustainable policies by accounting for environmental damage and advocating for clean energy and conservation, thus directing attention to societal well-being rather than just economic growth. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two primary solutions to the tragedy of the commons presented by Hardin, and how do they differ from Ostrom's perspective?

Hardin advocates for privatization or government regulation, while Ostrom believes multiple governance structures can effectively manage resources through community cooperation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the formula I = P × A × T and its implications for environmental impact.

The formula indicates that environmental impact (I) results from population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T), suggesting that population growth, consumption levels, and technological advances all contribute to environmental degradation. Signup and view all the answers

Define Empty-World and Full-World Economics and their significance in environmental discourse.

Empty-World Economics describes a time of abundant resources with minimal environmental impact, while Full-World Economics reflects the current situation where economic activity heavily strains finite resources. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the implications of Boulding's 'spaceman economy' for future economic models.

Boulding's 'spaceman economy' advocates for a transition to circular systems that maintain environmental and societal balance, moving away from exploitative linear models. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Greenhouse Gases

Gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane trap heat in the atmosphere.
This warming effect is essential for life on Earth, preventing it from freezing.

Climate Feedbacks

Processes that either amplify (positive feedback) or dampen (negative feedback) the effects of climate change.
Positive feedback: water vapor feedback (higher temperatures mean more water vapor).
Negative feedback: ice-albedo feedback (melting ice reduces the Earth's reflectivity).

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Assesses scientific research on climate change to provide comprehensive reports to policymakers.

Observed Changes in Climate System

Warming: Increase in global temperatures.
Sea Level Rise: Driven by melting glaciers and ice sheets.
Precipitation Patterns: Increased variability, leading to more droughts and storms.
Melting Arctic Ice and Glaciers: Reduction in Arctic sea ice.
Ocean Acidification: Absorption of excess CO2 by oceans, lowering their pH.

Economic Terms

Economic Optimum: Marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
Open Access Equilibrium: Total cost equals total revenue.
Social Optimum: Market equilibrium when accounting for externalities.
Market Equilibrium: Demand equals supply.

External Costs/Benefits

External costs (negative externalities) are costs to third parties during production or consumption.
External benefits (positive externalities) are benefits received by third parties from a transaction.
Internalization of externalities means incorporating external costs or benefits into market prices.
Market failure occurs when externalities are not internalized in market prices.

Dealing With Externalities

Pigovian tax: Directly targets the cost of externality.
Cap-and-Trade: Limited number of permits allocated to producers, each valid for a certain amount of pollution, companies can trade.
Direct Regulation: Government sets legal limits to the amount of pollution, done through environmental standards or quotas.
Subsidies for clean tech: Gives incentives to companies to switch to clean energy.
Coase theorem: Private negotiation between parties.

Coase Theorem

Parties can negotiate without government intervention if property rights are well-defined.

Optimal Pollution

The level of pollution where the marginal social benefit of production equals the marginal social cost, including the external costs of pollution.
Achieving zero pollution would require ceasing all production.
If demand increases, so does optimal pollution.

Tragedy of the Commons

A dilemma where several people, independently and rationally acting in their own self-interest, will inevitably deplete shared limited resources.
Common good is a common resource, open to everyone.
Subtractable: Each person can subtract from the welfare of others by using the resource.
Explains unsustainable development.
Solutions: Privatization, government regulation, community management.

Feeny

Argues that different management options for the Tragedy of the Commons are often not successful.
No private, state, or communal management consistently avoids resource degradation.
Management depends on the characteristics of the resource, socio-economic context, and ability to enforce restrictions.

Ostrom

Believes that communities can often manage common resources effectively on their own.
Discusses successful management principles (clear boundaries, fair rules, monitoring, conflict resolution), no one-size-fits-all approach, and challenges with larger resources.

Hardin vs. Ostrom

Inevitability vs. Possibility of Collective Action: Hardin thinks collective action is impossible; Ostrom believes communities can self-organize.
Solutions for Managing Resources: Hardin proposes top-down solutions; Ostrom proposes bottom-up solutions with community focus and flexible governance.
Human Behavior Assumptions: Hardin assumes self-interest; Ostrom believes people can cooperate.
Flexibility of Solutions: Hardin proposes only privatization or government regulation; Ostrom believes multiple governance structures can work depending on the resource and community.

Limits to Growth

Malthus: Population grows exponentially, food supply grows linearly, leading to scarcity.
Boulding: Need a shift from linear, exploitative economic models to circular systems that sustain the environment and society.
Ehrlich: Overpopulation impacts resource consumption and environmental degradation (I = P × A × T).
'Limits to growth' report: Used computer models to predict consequences of continued growth.

Daly’s Empty-World and Full-World Economics

Empty-World Economics: Resources appeared abundant, minimal environmental impact.
Full-World Economics: The economy heavily impacts the environment.
Ecological overshoot: Environmental degradation due to exceeding planetary boundaries.

GPI vs GDP

GDP measures the value of all goods and services produced.
GPI is an alternative that considers well-being, accounts for environmental damage, and adjusts for inequality.

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Description

This quiz covers essential topics related to climate change, focusing on greenhouse gases, climate feedback mechanisms, and the IPCC's role in assessing climate science. It also explores observed changes in the climate system, including global warming, sea level rise, and ocean acidification. Test your understanding of these critical environmental issues.