Classical Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Classical Mechanics

• Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects under the influence of forces.
• It's based on Newton's laws of motion.
• Newton's first law (inertia): An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
• Newton's second law (force and acceleration): The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. F = ma.
• Newton's third law (action-reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• Classical mechanics is used to analyze the motion of planets, projectiles, and everyday objects.
• Concepts like momentum, energy, and angular momentum are central to classical mechanics.

Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat, work, and energy.
• Key concepts include temperature, heat, internal energy, and entropy.
• The first law of thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or changed from one form to another.
• The second law of thermodynamics: The total entropy of an isolated system can only increase over time.
• The third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches absolute zero.
• Applications are seen in engines, refrigerators, and other heat-transfer devices.

Electromagnetism

• Electromagnetism describes the interaction between electric charges and magnetic fields.
• Electric charges exert forces on each other.
• Electric fields exist around charged objects.
• Moving charges create magnetic fields.
• Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges.
• Maxwell's equations describe the relationship between electric and magnetic fields.
• Applications include electricity generation, radio communications, and various technologies.

Optics

• Optics deals with the behavior of light.
• Light can be described as waves.
• Reflection and refraction describe how light interacts with surfaces.
• Lenses and mirrors can focus and manipulate light.
• The nature of light depends on the situation; sometimes it acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle.
• Key phenomena include diffraction, interference, and polarization.
• Applications include telescopes, microscopes, and optical fibers.

Modern Physics

• Modern physics encompasses quantum mechanics and relativity.
• Quantum mechanics describes the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic level.
• Particles exhibit wave-particle duality; meaning that they act as both waves and particles.
• Quantum mechanics explains phenomena like the photoelectric effect, atomic spectra, and radioactivity.
• Special relativity describes space and time in relation to motion.
• Space and time are relative and intertwined, affecting the behavior of objects moving at high speeds.
• General relativity describes gravity as a curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy.

Atomic Physics

• Atomic physics studies the structure and behavior of atoms.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus.
• Atomic spectra provide information about the energy levels within atoms.
• Atomic models are used to explain atomic behavior.
• Atoms interact with photons in quantized energy levels.
• The study of atoms has many applications, such as in lasers and medical imaging.

Nuclear Physics

• Nuclear physics explores the structure and properties of atomic nuclei.
• Atomic nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons.
• Nuclear forces are the forces that hold the nucleus together.
• Radioactive decay involves the release of particles and energy from unstable nuclei.
• Nuclear reactions, such fission and fusion, release massive amounts of energy.
• Applications are found in nuclear power, medical imaging, and industrial processes.