Class, Status, and Social Stratification

Class and Status

• Class, also termed socioeconomic class, defines one's position within a society's economic hierarchy
• Typical class designations include upper, middle, and lower class

Status

• Status reflects one’s social position in terms of privilege and esteem
• Status extends beyond economic factors to include lifestyle considerations
• Status types are either achieved or ascribed

Social Stratification

• This describes structured patterns of inequality in societal arrangements
• Social stratification is a foundational issue in sociology that affects numerous aspects of life
• Social status can be ascribed (at birth) or achieved (earned)

Conflict Theory and Social Stratification: Karl Marx

• Karl Marx's conflict theory addresses two main issues: class struggle and capitalism
• Society is characterized by conflict and class struggle
• Capitalism consists of two classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
• The bourgeoisie own the means of production and are the ruling class
• The proletariat are the workers who are exploited by the bourgeoisie
• Class conflict is inevitable between classes and stems from inequality
• Development of class consciousness occurs when workers recognize shared interests and take action
• Karl Marx predicted a socialist revolution and the eradication of capitalism

Structural Functionalist Approaches to Social Stratification

• Stratification serves a social function
• The Davis and Moore thesis posits that inequalities exist and are necessary in all societies
• For a functional society, members must be distributed across social positions and persuaded to perform
• Higher rank and economic gains should incentivize long/expensive education
• The system is based on consensus/shared values, where society agrees on what is fair and rewarding

Davis and Moore Thesis - Significant Criticism

• The ability to spend a long time in school may depend on financial capacity rather than talent
• Significant differences exist in who obtains the highest-paying employment along with women and minorities disproportionately occupying lower-paying positions
• Social inequality is extreme between the top and bottom, such as between a movie star versus a teacher

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives on Social Stratification: Thorstein Veblen

• Symbolic interactionism examines how inequality is interpreted and represented
• Attention is given to status symbols
• Status symbols confer higher social standing on their owner
• Veblen differentiated between the productiveness of manufacturing and the greed of business
• The purpose of business, is to provide money for leisure, which is the main activity for the "leisure class"
• Conspicuous consumption: The purchasing of expensive goods and services primarily for the purpose of putting wealth on display
• Purchases are status symbols
• Critical of waste/excess
• People look at social location everywhere

Feminist Explanations for Social Stratification

• Historically, few women were included in class analysis
• Feminist scholars recognize that gender intersects with social class
• Feminization of poverty: Poverty rates among women are generally higher than those of men, nationally and globally
• Women are often disadvantaged in paid work and at home
• According to the Canadian census, women have disproportionate paid work at home

Class and Status Inequality in Canada

• Research reveals a considerable gap between the top and bottom economic hierarchies in Canada
• Statistics Canada's income survey uses deciles (1/10)
• Richest: $183,600; Poorest: $9,200
• 13.5% of Canadian households (4.6 million) are considered "poor."
• In 2013, the top 1% held 10.3% of the national income
• Two Concerns when considering wealth and income: the implications of consolidation of wealth and power on democratic structures and the acceptable gap between the haves and have-nots regarding social mobility/open access

The Poor and Economically Marginalized

• Poverty encompasses situations where individuals lack many opportunities available to the average citizen
• Relative poverty refers to inadequacy compared to living standards, while absolute poverty refers to the lack of basic necessities
• Statistics Canada uses three measures to determine “poor”/below low-income levels: Low-Income Cutoffs (LICO), Market Basket Measure (MBM), and Low-Income Measure (LIM)

Statistics Canada’s 3 Measures of Poverty

• Low-Income Cutoffs (LICO): income thresholds below which a family spends more of their income on necessities
• Market Basket Measure (MBM): a measure of low income based on the cost of a specified basket of essential goods and services that represent a modest, basic standard of living
• Low Income Measure (LIM): A measure used most frequently in international comparisons when referring to families living at 50 per cent below the median adjusted household income

Women

• Gender wage inequalities lead to high rates of poverty
• Obstacles to employment and fair wages persist despite the Pay Equity Act
• Women are often at a disadvantage due to inequities in unpaid work, undervaluing of female paid work, workplace gender segregation, and male premiums in wages/promotion
• Full-time working women earn 20% less than men, with greater inequity for Indigenous, racialized, and immigrant women

Unattached Individuals

• In 2013, 27.8% of individuals not living in an economic family experienced low incomes
• Low-income rates correlate with living alone, resulting in economic disadvantage

Indigenous People

• Food insecurity is described as insufficient access to the quantity or variety of food due to poverty
• A 2016 report indicated 23% First Nations women, 18% Metis women, and 53% Inuit women in Inuit Nunangat
• Indigenous people experience lower incomes and higher unemployment

Indigenous Income & Employment Rates

• The average Indigenous income in 2010 was $20,060, compared to $27,622 for non-Indigenous individuals
• The employment rate for Indigenous individuals aged 25-64 was 62.5% in 2011, compared to 75.8% for non-Indigenous individuals

New Immigrants and Visible Minorities

• New immigrants experienced a poverty rate of 17.6% in 2010, almost twice the overall rate
• Overlap exists between immigrant status and visible minority identity
• Visible minority women experience higher unemployment and are impacted by gender and immigrant status
• Labour market stratification analysis considers the intersectionality of gender, visible minority status, and immigrant status

People Living with Disabilities

• Almost 1/5 of Canadians living with a disability experience low income
• Inadequate supports lead to dependence on income security programs
• The experience is restrictive, disrespectful, parsimonious and repressive

The Working Poor

• This demographic includes individuals aged 18-64, not students, living independently, earning at least $3000 a year, and with income below the LIM-AT measure
• They are not unemployed or reliant on government transfers
• As of 2016 in Ontario, a 40-hour work week at minimum wage for 50 weeks resulted in just over the LIM-AT for a single person

Understanding Poverty

• The belief exists that everyone has the same chances to realize the "American Dream"
• Classism is described as bias, prejudice, and discrimination based on social class
• The result is blaming the victim vs. the system
• Overlooking poverty includes institutional arrangements/legislation
• Structural variables include deindustrialization, increased cost of living, and limited access to affordable housing

Gender and Sexuality, and Ethnic and Race Relations

• Thinking sociologically about gender and sexuality reveals that society is deeply structured by these concepts
• Society is shaped by gender and heteronormative expectations
• Heterosexuality is seen as a universal norm, making homosexuality invisible or "abnormal"

Gender and Sexuality as Critical Vantage Points

• Gender and sexuality are central parts of Canadian sociological study, historically heterocentric/male centered
• Social relations and structures are assessed by the norms of heterosexuality
• Dorothy Smith includes/centers women's experiences with research and theory
• Sexuality studies challenge fixed/inaccurate ideas about human sexuality

Feminist scholars in Gender and Sexuality

• Feminist scholars study the social construction of sex and sexuality, control of women's bodies and reproduction, the objectification of women, sexual double standards, the link between sex and power, and sexual abuse and oppression

Gender and Sexuality as Social Constructions

• The early idea that gender identities are easily mapped to biological identities has been challenged
• Gender and Sex are terms that have been introduced
• Gender is socially produced, regarding character, ambition and achievement
• Sex is biologically based, related to chromosomes and reproductive functions
• Sociology has challenged notions of being dichotomous
• There is a dynamic relationship between features of sexed bodies and what these features mean in social situations and personal identities

Gender and Sexuality as Social Constructions

• With social construction of gender, a greater range of behaviors and identities emerge
• This expresses a more varied relationship between sexual orientation, gender expression, and the gendered/sexed body
• Current sociological scholarship is focused on undoing gendered/heteronormative assumptions/structures

Gender and Sexuality in Everyday Life

• Gender differences in school experiences are getting significant attention
• Early research focused on classroom experiences, curriculum, and measurement of success favouring boys
• In the early 1980s, enrolment of women in university was greater than men
• In 2011, women made up 60% of university/college enrolment, but less than half of doctoral programs
• Women are underrepresented in engineering, physical sciences, and computer sciences
• Women make up 26% of students in math and comp/info science and 20% of architecture, engineering, and related tech

Sexual Violence

• Schippers: Sexual domination of women is a cornerstone of gender hegemony
• Hegemonic masculinity and hegemonic femininity as dominance is supported by eroticization of difference and power imbalance in heterosexual sex
• Connell's "hegemonic masculinity" informs Schipper's theory of gender hegemony
• Hegemonic masculinity can vary by social context, but typically valorizes physical strength, economic power, heterosexuality, and the domination of women and subordinate men

Gender and Sexuality in Work

• Gender segregation occurs in gender-segregated university programs and jobs
• Men start at higher salary in the same career, creating a glass ceiling for women
• Organizational sexuality is social practices that determine explicit and culturally elaborate rules of behavior to regulate sexual identities and relationships
• Some organizations mandate sexualization of workers, and this is an institutionalized component of work

Gender and Sexuality in the Family

• Areas of study: inequality within the family/gender divisions of domestic labour
• Three features: Domestic labor/care for children, more men doing more housework, and some families allowed to legally "count" as families (Bill C 23 (2000), C-315 (2005))
• The domestic labor/care for children situation is not a small issue concerning only women
• There is a gender imbalance of family-based care work that has political, economic, personal, and social costs. When men do not care this affects shorter lifespans

The Body

• Gender negotiation of youth occurs within a globalized, relational context
• Greater exposure exists to diverse images/practices related to masculinity, femininity, and sexuality
• Pressure exists in the form of homogenized, conservative, stereotyped, and exploitative messages
• The body is a site where gender is worked out

Gender Relations and Social Change

• Youth are a key source of energy
• They are usually involved in campaigns and activist work, such as Femmetoxic, White Ribbon Campaign, and Egale Canada

Ethnic and Race Relations

• Ethnicity and race relations are central and growing in Canadian sociology
• Ethnicity refers to social distinctions and relations among individuals and groups based on their cultural characteristics, such as language, religion, customs, and history
• Race peoples assumed but socially significant physical or genetic characteristics

Canada's Development Through Immigration

• Until the 1960s, Canada's image was one of British and French peoples as founders
• Notion that Canada built the country is inaccurate and was done at the expense of Indigenous peoples

Immigration

• Immigration helped build infrastructure, agriculture, and industry post-confederation
• There was a large wave of immigration from 1896 to WW1, called "Free land"
• Policies until the 1960s were exclusionary in nature
• Some groups were preferred, whereas others were non-preferred/excluded
• The racist criteria was eliminated 1962
• A "points system" to establish objective criteria was introduced in 1967

Recent Immigration Trends

• Until the 1950s, about 90% of immigrants came from the US/UK/Europe, but that decreased to 14.8% in 2014
• In 2014, 84.8% came from the Asia and Pacific Region/Africa and Middle East/South and Central America
• Immigrants sorted into several classes: Economic, Family Class, Refugees, and Others

Immigration numbers

• In 2015, the largest class was Economic, comprising 62.7% of immigrants
• Family class immigrants made up 24%
• Refugees made up 1.8%

Immigration & Geographic Distribution Trends

• Ontario accounted for 38.1% of immigration, Quebec - 18%, Alberta - 17.4%, BC - 13.1%, Manitoba – 5.5%, and Saskatchewan - 4.6% of immigration
• Immigration occurs in rural and urban centres
• Multiculturalism is a focus urban centres
• Prior to multiculturalism, Canadian society followed ethnocentrism
• Pressure put on immigrants to adopt British/French cultural values/customs
• Assimilation includes the process/practices to fuse immigrants into the dominant culture
• Multiculturalism was first introduced as policy in 1971

Prejudice and Racism

• Historically the unjust treatment of Indigenous peoples by the Canadian Government
• During the two world wars, internment occurred for Germans, Italians, Japanese/Russians, Ukrainians, and Jews
• The first half of the 20th century included a policy exclusion of Chinese and South Asians

Prejudice and Racism

• Racism is more covert at the present day than it once was
• Systemic discrimination refers to impersonal, covert practices that penalize members of minorities
• Institutional racism is prejudice and discrimination that is built into and permeates the structure and functions of economic, political, and social institutions

The Vertical Mosaic and the Colour Coded Mosaic

• The Vertical Mosaic was a term introduced in 1965
• Porter's metaphor describes Canadian society implying many ethnic groups (mosaic) but that an ethnic hierarchy exists with the British and French on top
• All other groups in society are at the bottom of social, economic and political structures (vertical)
• The form is racialized rather than ethnic today
• Colour-coded Vertical Mosaic: "The argument that “race” or “visibility” has replaced ethnicity in the structure of social, economic, and political inequality in Canada."

Family Statistics

• In 2021-total census families: 10,262,920
• A decade earlier – 9,389,700
• One parent families – 16.4%
• Couple families (married/common law) – 83.6%
• Without children – 4,286,165 - 41.8%
• With children – 4,290,415 – 41.8%
• Two parent non-step families – 3,786,935
• Two parent step families - 503,475

Family Diversity

• Over past 100 years – decline in family size
• 1931-4.1; 2021-2.9
• Simple step families – all children-1 spouse/partner
• Complex step families- 1 child –both parents, 1 child/1 parent
• Multigenerational household - consists of more than two generations living under the same roof
• Skip generation families include grandparents but not parents

Definitions for Family

• Variation among forms, conventional definitions are elusive
• Nuclear family: couple, children same household, as well a one-parent family with children
• Bi-nuclear family: children of divorced parents who live in both households
• Multigenerational households
• Household – individuals sharing a dwelling is considered a family

Vanier Institute of the Family Definition for a Family

• Any combination of two or more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent, birth, and/or adoption or placement
• This family assumes responsibilities for variant combinations of some of the following: physical maintenance and care of group members, addition of new members through procreation or adoption, socialization of children, social control of members, production/consumption/distribution of goods and services, and affective nurturance-love

Structural Functionalism

• Structural Functionalism: Health - important for smooth functioning of society
• Institutions – work together to create/maintain good health
• The organization of society supports up to a given life expectancy/health
• Examples include age of mandatory retirement, timing of pension funding
• Parsons coined the phrase “sick role.”; a special position in society that prevents sickness from disrupting social life and provides a way of institutionalizing what might otherwise become a form of deviant behaviour

Structural Functionalism: Sick Role

• Rights: exemption from normal social roles and freedom from blame/responsibility from sickness
• Want to get well
• Seek and cooperate with technically competent help
• Not always – empirically supported

Conflict Theory

• Health/ill-health is an inequitable/oppressive economic condition
• Questions to ask: morbidity/mortality rate, poverty, and racism
• The frequency of death/disease per a specified number of people over a particular period of time

Health from Conflict Theory

• Health is a commodity that is inequitable across societies
• Engels wrote the “Condition of the Working Class in England”
• Farm workers moved from farms to cities and found no regard for well-being
• Costs are low, there are poor working conditions – filthy/noisy/low-wage/long hours
• Poor living conditions are breeding grounds for disease that cause high morbidity and mortality rates
• Useful – economic disparities/health inequalities should be eliminated through income equality to increase health outcomes

Interpretive Theory

• This theory includes interpretation/meanings
• Useful concept: stigma
• Erving Goffman’s- 1963 book: “Stigma: Notes on the Management of a Spoiled Identity”
• Aids in understanding – negative repercussions of illness - beyond disease -entire person that exacerbates suffering

Feminism/Anti-Racism; Health Sociology

• Centrality of gender and racialization – social life
• Looks at whether/how/why gendered and racialized individuals have different health/illness profiles, different causes/avg age of death
• Uncovering social injustice/social change

Paid and Unpaid Work, Family Health and Well-being

• 1976 - 2014: single earner families with a stay-at-home parent decreased from 1.5 million to 500,000
• New economy jobs are for low pay, part-time roles, low status and non-traditional hours
• Change in employment – earnings instability/inequality for families has increased - 90's
• 1980 debt to disposable incomes for households – 66%; By 2011 it was over 150%, and by 2024 it will be over 170%

Work-family Conflict

• Work-family conflict: “...the time related stress arising from competing demands of the different roles imposed on working parents
• Work-family conflict is affected by place with disadvantaged neighborhoods having more conflict
• Work family conflict causes increase in stressors and less available psychological resources
• Women experience greater work-family conflict due to structural neighborhood disadvantage

Forms of violence

• Intimate Partner Violence (WHO) is one of the most common forms of violence against women
• Involves a former or current partner and includes: physical violence, sexual violence, emotional abuse, and controlling behaviors

The Sociology of Health, Illness, Disease and Sickness

• Changing health of Canadians: In general the population is living longer, healthier lives than in the past
• In the 19th century – infectious/communicable diseases caused significant suffering and death
• In 1920 life expectancy: men were expected to live to 59 and women were expected to live to 61
• Today, Canadians are expected to live to 79/83
• 1920s - most common cause of death was cardiovascular and renal disease

Factors Contributing to Increase in Life Expectancy

• Increase in life expectancy due to: improvement in public health – nutrition, hygiene (water/sanitation), availability of birth control, vaccines, and antibiotics

Areas of Study

• The sociology of medicine looks at medical care systems
• Includes hospitals, clinics, and home care
• Looks at the training/work of professionals/health care providers, and related industries

The Canadian Medical Care System

• Present system – 1972 – result of Royal Commission on Health Care
• Recommended universal health care
• Prior to this hospitalization /medical testing covered, but not physician fees or other services
• Four basic principles: Universality, Portability, Comprehensive coverage, and Administration
• The fifth principle was added 1984 in the Canada Health Act & is accessibility

Medical care system- Privatization

• For-profit corporations
• 70% is public
• 30% is private
• Includes medical insurance treatments/services, drugs, medical devices, home care, IT services, food/laundry for hospitals, and long term/institutional care

Medicalization

• The tendency for more and more of life to be defined as relevant to medicine
• Expansion in what in life and in a person is relevant to medicine
• Four components:
• The maintenance of absolute control over certain technical procedures by the allopathic medical profession
• The maintenance of almost absolute access to certain areas by the medical profession
• The spread of medicine's relevance to an increasingly large portion of living

A Global Care Crisis?

• Families rely on intergenerational exchange
• The sandwich generation caring for children and aging parents
• 28% of caregivers – are “sandwiched”