Class 12 History: Mughal Rural Society

The system of collecting taxes from land in Mughal India, designed by Todar Mal, Akbar's finance minister. This system was heavily influenced by Persian terminology and is still used in parts of North India today.

A part of the Akbar Nama, written by Abul Fazl, which provides detailed information about the Mughal land revenue system, social hierarchy, and other aspects of Mughal administration. It's a valuable primary source for understanding the period.

Documents and records from various kingdoms within the Mughal Empire, like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. These records show differences in the land revenue system across regions.

Records from the British East India Company, particularly important for understanding the rural society of eastern India, including the Madras and Bombay presidencies. These records offer a unique perspective on the Mughal period.

Peasants who owned their own land and farmed it in Mughal India. This category challenged the idea that peasants did not have private land ownership.

Peasants who worked on land owned by others in Mughal India. They often traveled to different villages and worked based on contracts.

Medieval India recognized individual land ownership, meaning land could be passed down through generations as an asset. This showed that peasants could possess their own land.

Peasants in North India typically had limited resources, usually owning only one pair of oxen and two plows. Their wealth varied across regions, with Bengal showing more prosperous peasants due to fertile land.

A caste-based council that handled civil disputes within a particular caste, like property and marriage issues.

A village-level council composed of village elders, responsible for village administration and managing village resources.

The leader of the village Panchayat, chosen by village elders and approved by the Zamindar, responsible for village administration and collecting taxes.

The local landholder who had significant influence in the village, respected the authority of the village elders and played a role in approving the Headman.

Panchayat funds were used for maintaining good relationships with Mughal officials, helping villagers during disasters, and building infrastructure.

The Panchayat helped villagers during calamities like floods or droughts, built infrastructure like canals and wells, and enforced the caste system.

The Headman maintained village accounts and collected taxes for the Mughal administration, and also ensured villagers followed caste rules and social conduct.

Headmen depended on village elders and Zamindars for support, leading them to manipulate taxes for personal gain and favoritism.

Disputes often involved taxation, forced labor ('begar') and extortion, with lower castes often burdened with more taxes and forced labor.

Begar was used to pay off debts, often hereditary, leading to cycles of bonded labor and further entrapment for generations.

They would often collectively petition, and when that failed, they sometimes left their villages to find better conditions elsewhere.

India's fertile land, water access, and forests made migration easy for those seeking better opportunities.

Artisans often also worked as farmers, switching between crafts and agriculture depending on the seasons.

Lower castes were often trapped in a cycle of poverty and low social status due to the limited access to resources and opportunities.

While today's system is democratic, there remains a bias towards an 'elite' administration, with limited representation for marginalized groups, echoing the issues of the past.

Many individuals in medieval India combined the roles of artisans and farmers, blurring the line between these professions. Artisans often received compensation in the form of land or a share of the harvest, indicating their importance in agricultural economies.

Meera or Watan referred to land granted to artisans, usually uncultivated, as a form of compensation for their services. This land was considered hereditary property, passed down to their children.

This was the most prevalent form of payment to artisans. The artisan received a share of the harvest, often based on the quality and nature of their work.

This system, prevalent in Bengal and other regions of India, involved an arrangement between client households (usually upper castes) and service caste families. These families provided specific services like tailoring, priesthood, or carpentry, in exchange for cash payment and a 'diet money.'

The Jajmani system demonstrates the coexistence of cash and barter systems. Cash payments offered greater economic opportunities, while barter restricted individuals to specific commodity exchanges.

Cash payments enabled savings and investment, leading to the establishment of shops. These shops, acting as banks, managed cash flow, issued letters of credit, and facilitated long-distance trade.

Village society in medieval India was not a true republic in the modern sense. While there was a degree of self-governance, the unequal distribution of wealth and land created a hierarchy within villages.

The term "republic" to describe village society was often used to refer to an oligarchy, where a small group of powerful individuals, usually upper castes, controlled village affairs.

Women played a crucial role in agriculture, performing similar tasks as men. Their labor was essential, particularly in labor-intensive agricultural societies, preventing their exclusion from field work.

Women often played more active roles than men in craft production, especially in industries like textiles, pottery, and embroidery, due to the creative and delicate nature of the work.

The practice of bride price, where the groom's family paid the bride's family, reflected the value placed on women's contribution to agriculture, craft production, and their reproductive capabilities.

While women were vital to society, they faced discrimination and social restrictions. Their role in agriculture and craft production, along with their reproductive capabilities, led to practices like bride price but also imposed limitations during menstruation.

Joint families were common in agrarian society due to limited economic opportunities and the need for a large workforce. Families stayed together for mutual support, reflecting the challenges of the environment.

Men and women in medieval India experienced vastly different societal expectations. While women could seek justice in village panchayats, they were often subject to stricter punishments and faced societal double standards.

The idea that individuals could own and control land in medieval India, despite European traveler Bernier's belief otherwise. This is evident through the practice of 'demarcation,' which marked land boundaries to show ownership.

A traditional irrigation method used in India, specifically in Punjab and Haryana, involving a water wheel powered by oxen to lift water from wells for irrigation. This system is still used today.

Farmers in medieval India used wooden plows with iron tips, unlike the iron plows of ancient times. This design was preferred for preserving soil moisture and fertility.

A type of crop harvested in the spring season in medieval India, with wheat being a prominent example.

A type of crop harvested in the autumn season in medieval India, with rice being a prominent example.

A system of double cropping, where land is cultivated with two different crops in a single year, maximizing yield and resource utilization.

Crops grown primarily for self-consumption by the farmer, such as rice, lentils, and wheat, ensuring food security.

Commercial crops produced for trade and profit, also known as 'perfect goods,' such as sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds.

The Deccan region in medieval India was a major producer of cotton, leading to a significant expansion of production and trade in this commodity.

Crops like maize, tomatoes, potatoes, and chilies, originating from the Americas, were introduced to India after the arrival of Europeans.

Introduced from the Americas during Akbar's reign, tobacco became popular in India despite its later ban by Jahangir due to its addictive nature and religious prohibitions.

The fertile land and advanced agricultural practices, along with the flexibility of cultivation, allowed for a significant population growth in India between 1600 and 1800, from 50 million to 500 million.

Social inequality existed in village communities, with higher castes generally holding more wealth, while lower castes, often lacking land ownership, were mainly agricultural laborers.

A process of cultural and religious assimilation utilized by lower or middle castes to achieve higher social status, aiming to emulate the practices and values of upper castes.

The Jati hierarchy, more flexible and allowing for movement, contrasted with the rigid Varna hierarchy, with four categories (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) and little to no movement between levels.