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Questions and Answers
What method can be used to refresh information stored in short-term memory?
What method can be used to refresh information stored in short-term memory?
According to Peterson and Peterson's research, what is the approximate duration of working memory without rehearsal?
According to Peterson and Peterson's research, what is the approximate duration of working memory without rehearsal?
How is short-term memory described in modern theories?
How is short-term memory described in modern theories?
What is one characteristic of long-term memory (LTM)?
What is one characteristic of long-term memory (LTM)?
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What does the term 'working memory' encompass in its modern understanding?
What does the term 'working memory' encompass in its modern understanding?
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What does memory research suggest about the nature of 'recovered' memories of childhood abuse?
What does memory research suggest about the nature of 'recovered' memories of childhood abuse?
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Which statement accurately describes the reliability of memories retrieved under hypnosis?
Which statement accurately describes the reliability of memories retrieved under hypnosis?
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What is the relationship between traumatic events and memory formation?
What is the relationship between traumatic events and memory formation?
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Which of the following seems to contribute to the creation of false memories?
Which of the following seems to contribute to the creation of false memories?
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How do repressed memories of minor events typically resurface?
How do repressed memories of minor events typically resurface?
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What does rehearsal primarily involve in the encoding process?
What does rehearsal primarily involve in the encoding process?
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Which encoding method is associated with a better long-term retention of information?
Which encoding method is associated with a better long-term retention of information?
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What type of processing focuses on the meaning of information?
What type of processing focuses on the meaning of information?
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What effect does simple rehearsal have on memory retention?
What effect does simple rehearsal have on memory retention?
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Which statement best describes the spacing effect noted by Ebbinghaus?
Which statement best describes the spacing effect noted by Ebbinghaus?
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What is a key factor that influences memory retention in effortful processing?
What is a key factor that influences memory retention in effortful processing?
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What method did Ebbinghaus use to study rehearsal?
What method did Ebbinghaus use to study rehearsal?
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What characterizes shallow processing in information encoding?
What characterizes shallow processing in information encoding?
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Which of the following statements best describes the encoding process in memory?
Which of the following statements best describes the encoding process in memory?
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What is the primary purpose of storage in memory processes?
What is the primary purpose of storage in memory processes?
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What characterizes retrieval in the context of memory?
What characterizes retrieval in the context of memory?
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How do cognitive psychologists differ from behaviorists in their approach to studying memory?
How do cognitive psychologists differ from behaviorists in their approach to studying memory?
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Which statement is true about the different memory systems?
Which statement is true about the different memory systems?
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What is true about information as described in the content?
What is true about information as described in the content?
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Which aspect of memory does not involve active engagement with information?
Which aspect of memory does not involve active engagement with information?
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What is a key feature of information processing models?
What is a key feature of information processing models?
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What type of memory allows for reliving personal events at a specific point in time?
What type of memory allows for reliving personal events at a specific point in time?
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Which type of amnesia involves an impaired ability to recall old memories?
Which type of amnesia involves an impaired ability to recall old memories?
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Which part of the brain is essential for the formation of long-term explicit episodic memories?
Which part of the brain is essential for the formation of long-term explicit episodic memories?
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Which statement best describes semantic memory?
Which statement best describes semantic memory?
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After losing his hippocampus, what was patient H.M.'s significant memory impairment?
After losing his hippocampus, what was patient H.M.'s significant memory impairment?
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In the context of memory, what does 'mental time travel' refer to?
In the context of memory, what does 'mental time travel' refer to?
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What does the cerebellum primarily contribute to in terms of memory?
What does the cerebellum primarily contribute to in terms of memory?
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What is sensory memory primarily responsible for in the context of the Modal Model of Memory?
What is sensory memory primarily responsible for in the context of the Modal Model of Memory?
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How do amnesiacs perform on procedural tasks like mirror drawing?
How do amnesiacs perform on procedural tasks like mirror drawing?
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What was the average recall rate of participants in Sperling's whole report method?
What was the average recall rate of participants in Sperling's whole report method?
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What does the rapid performance decrease in Sperling's delayed partial report indicate about iconic memory?
What does the rapid performance decrease in Sperling's delayed partial report indicate about iconic memory?
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According to the modal model, what happens to information in sensory memory if it is attended to?
According to the modal model, what happens to information in sensory memory if it is attended to?
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What was a significant finding from the partial report method in Sperling's experiment?
What was a significant finding from the partial report method in Sperling's experiment?
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Which aspect of sensory memory was highlighted by the results of Sperling's experiments?
Which aspect of sensory memory was highlighted by the results of Sperling's experiments?
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Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing the performance in Sperling's delayed partial report?
Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing the performance in Sperling's delayed partial report?
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What cognitive process occurs after sensory memory if information is attended?
What cognitive process occurs after sensory memory if information is attended?
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Study Notes
Memory Chapter 6
- Memory is more than recall. It's essential for all learning, including classical and operant conditioning, as well as motor skills like walking and talking.
Overview
- Information processing models explain how memory works.
- Encoding: Getting information into memory.
- Storage: Keeping information in memory.
- Short-term and long-term memories.
- Retrieval: Accessing and using information.
- Forgetting and memory errors.
Information
- Information isn't tangible but influences other patterns.
- Cognitive psychologists use observable effects to study internal processes like memory.
Information Processing
- Encoding: Transforming information for storage.
- Storage: Maintaining information in the brain for retrieval.
- Retrieval: Recalling information in a similar form to encoding.
Information Processing Models: Box & Arrow Diagrams
- Functional units process and store information (boxes).
- Connections (arrows) transfer information between units.
- Models explain theoretical memory processes but not brain implementation.
- Sensory input goes to sensory memory.
- Information ignored is lost from sensory memory.
- Unrehearsed information is lost from short-term memory.
- Some information may get lost from long-term memory over time.
- Attention decides whether information gets passed to short-term memory.
Encoding
- Continuous processing (thoughts, feelings, sensory) is crucial for memory.
- Processing's manner (encoding) significantly affects recall.
- Rehearsal, though simple, isn't always effective.
Rehearsal
- Conscious repetition is a basic but not always effective encoding strategy.
- Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables (e.g., TUV YOF) to study rehearsal's effect, showing rapid forgetting with simple rehearsal.
Rehearsal and Distributed Practice
- Spacing study time over several shorter sessions is more effective than cramming.
- Rehearsing 10 times, then again later, is better than rehearsing 20 times consecutively.
Effortful Processing
- Understanding and relating new information to existing knowledge improves memory.
- Meaningful processing leads to lasting, accessible memories.
Encoding Strategies
- Meaning, imagery, organization are types of encoding.
- Chunking and hierarchies are effective strategies for organization and encoding.
Deep vs. Shallow Processing
- Deep processing focuses on meaning, improving long-term retention particularly in later delays.
- Shallow processing involves physical features or irrelevant associations.
- Semantic encoding, a type of deep processing, is crucial in understanding and relating to existing knowledge.
Levels of Processing
- Different encoding levels require varying degrees of effort.
- Participants who processed information semantically (meaning) remembered it better than those who processed it acoustically (sound) or visually (appearance).
Making Information Personally Meaningful
- Relating material to ourselves aids encoding and retention.
Mnemonics
- Mnemonics are learning techniques that improve memory.
- Many use imagery and organizing techniques.
Organizing Information for Encoding
- Information is easier to remember when organized.
- Chunking and hierarchies are effective encoding methods.
Chunking
- Grouping information into meaningful units for better recall, for example, using acronyms (HOMES or ROY G. BIV).
Hierarchy
- Organizing information hierarchically into categories and subcategories makes complex information manageable.
Modal Model of Memory (STM)
- Short-term memory (STM) is accessible to consciousness.
- STM receives information, from the sensory memory or the long-term memory.
- STM has limited capacity and duration.
- People can typically hold around 7+/-2 items in STM.
- Information is kept in STM by rehearsal, for example, repeating a password.
- Information not actively maintained is quickly forgotten.
- The duration of STM is brief (about 20 seconds without rehearsal).
Capacity of STM
- STM capacity is approximately 7 items (plus or minus two) - digits, letters, or words.
Duration of STM
- Information is retained longer in STM through use or rehearsal (repeating).
- Without active use, STM fades quickly. Peterson and Peterson's study demonstrates rapidly declining memory if no rehearsal is used.
- Duration estimates for STM without rehearsal is 20 seconds, according to Peterson & Peterson's study.
Beyond the Modal Model (Working Memory)
- Modern views of STM conceptualize it as working memory, emphasizing active processing that involves more than just storing information.
- Working memory stores incoming sensory information, as well as information retrieved from the long-term memory, which supports our ability to do complex cognitive tasks.
Working Memory
- Working memory involves components, including the central executive, auditory rehearsal loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.
- The central executive functions as the boss, coordinating attentional processes.
- Auditory rehearsal loop, like repeating a phone number.
- Visuospatial sketchpad, like mentally organizing images or furniture in space.
- Long-term memory is essential to retrieval.
Modal Model of Memory (LTM)
- Long-term memory (LTM) is a storage space with no established storage limits.
- Fifty years after graduation people can usually recognize around 90% of their high school classmates.
Memory Feats
- Memory feats showcase the exceptional capability of human memory.
- Some examples include recalling shuffled cards, numbers, names, or binary digits.
Forms of Long-Term Memory
- Explicit memory allows for conscious retrieval.
- Implicit memory's retrieval involves unconscious cognitive processes.
- Explicit memory is further divided into episodic and semantic memory.
Episodic Memory
- Episodic memory stores personally experienced events.
- It allows “mental time travel,” to reliving past events.
Semantic Memory
- Semantic memory stores general knowledge and facts.
- World knowledge (e.g., the capital of a country), vocabulary, algorithms and formulae are examples of content stored in semantic memory.
Amnesia
- Retrograde amnesia is characterized by an inability to recall memories from before a particular trauma.
- Anterograde amnesia is marked by an inability to form new memories after a particular trauma.
Hippocampus
- The hippocampus is a crucial area of the brain involved in forming long-term memories.
- This process is more important for new memories rather than old ones.
Episodic Memory
- Networks of brain regions are involved in storing and retrieving episodic memories.
Priming and Procedural Memory
- Priming activates related memory.
- Procedural memory involves skills and procedures without the conscious knowledge of how these were learned.
Mirror Drawing
- Mirror drawing is a good example to demonstrate procedural memory because even amnesiacs improve this task even if they have no memory of performing it before.
Implicit Memory Processing
- The cerebellum is important for learning and storing conditioned responses.
- The basal ganglia are involved in controlling movement and forming procedural memory and motor skills.
Forming New Memories
- Initially new memories are fragile.
- Newer memories are more likely to be forgotten.
Consolidation
- Consolidation is a time-dependent process of transferring and solidifying new memories into long-term memory.
- Sleep helps in memory consolidation.
- Memories can become less dependent on the hippocampus as this process progresses.
Information Storage at the Synapse
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a neural change that occurs after repeated use.
- This enhancement of firing in neurons and synaptic changes strengthens the connection and responding in neurons.
Retrieval
- Information in long-term memory can only be used when retrieved into working memory.
- Retrieval cues help access memories.
- The more retrieval cues available the more likely you are to be able to retrieve the information.
Retrieval Cues
- Retrieval cues can be internal (thoughts, feelings, associations) or external (words, stimuli, places).
- Memories are linked by association networks.
Encoding Specificity
- The principle of encoding specificity explains that memories are encoded with surrounding information.
- Recreating the encoding situation is the most effective retrieval cue.
- Godden and Baddeley’s study demonstrates the effect of encoding specificity.
State-Dependent Memories
- State-dependent memory retrieval, for example, retrieving memories easier in the same physiological or psychological state as when the memory was encoded (e.g., when sober).
Retrieval: Memory Improvements
- Recollection can improve memory over time.
- Testing frequently strengthens and refines memory retrieval.
Seven Sins of Memory
- Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, memory misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence are typical errors in memory.
Transience
- Memories fade with time (decay).
- Interference (from new or old information) contributes to forgetting.
Absentmindedness
- Lapses in attention contribute to forgetting.
- Effortless encoding can't produce strong memories.
Blocking
- Failure to retrieve available information (the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).
- Retrieval cues can aid recall.
Memory Misattribution
- Assigning memories or ideas to the wrong source.
Suggestibility
- Incorporating misleading information from external sources into memory.
Misinformation Effect
- Leading questions (e.g., "smashed" vs. "hit") can distort eyewitness recollections.
- False memories can be implanted (e.g., the "lost in the mall" experiment).
Memory Construction
- Memories aren't perfect recordings, but constructed representations.
Memories of Abuse
- Some people believe recovered memories of abuse are repressed.
- Memory research suggests these memories can be constructed.
Constructed Childhood Memories
- The creation of false childhood memories may be triggered by suggestion.
- 'Lost in the mall' and 'balloon ride' experiments provide evidence.
Are Traumatic Memories Repressed and Recovered?
- Memories can sometimes reappear spontaneously.
- Deliberate recall of memories (particularly distressing ones) may more likely create (rather than retrieve) false memories.
Bias
- Present knowledge and beliefs can influence memory.
- Consistency and change biases are examples that reveal memory's inclination to fit with present understanding.
Persistence
- Unwanted memories persist, often related to emotional experiences.
Emotions & Memory
- Strong emotions, like stress or excitement, can enhance memory.
- Vivid emotional memories, known as flashbulb memories, are remarkably clear.
Adaptiveness of Memory
- Memory is an adaptive process, aiding in survival by prioritizing essential information.
- Memory's effectiveness comes at the cost of completeness and accuracy.
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