Civil Rights Movement: Racism and Segregation

Civil Rights Movement in the United States (1954–1965)

Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination

Racism and Violence Against African Americans

• Racial violence was common, particularly in Mississippi, due to the KKK.
• White perpetrators of violence often went unpunished due to all-white juries.
• The KKK used violence to suppress Black voter registration.
• By 1964, only 1% of Mississippi's Black citizens were registered to vote.

Segregation and Education

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) challenged the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.
• The NAACP strategically used legal action to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson.
• The Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.
• Southern states resisted desegregation through complex application processes and the Southern Manifesto.
• This ruling was the first major challenge to Jim Crow laws in the South.

Little Rock Crisis (1957)

• Nine Black students attempting to enroll at Little Rock Central High School faced violent resistance.
• The Arkansas governor used the National Guard to block the students' entry.
• President Eisenhower deployed U.S. Army troops to escort the students.
• Integrated high schools were closed the following year to avoid further integration.
• Arkansas banned NAACP members from employment.

Economic and Social Discrimination

• Jim Crow laws segregated public spaces.
• Black men in the South were frequently arrested for minor offenses.
• Civil rights activists risked job loss and arrest.
• The Brown v. Board ruling was the first major legal blow to Jim Crow laws.

Non-Violent Protests

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956)

• Triggered by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her bus seat.
• 90% of the local Black community participated in the boycott.
• Black car owners provided transportation for protestors.
• The federal court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional in Browder v. Gale.
• White segregationists violently resisted the boycott.

Freedom Rides (1961)

• CORE organized the rides to test desegregation laws in interstate travel.
• The rides met violent resistance in the Deep South.
• Buses were attacked, and riders were beaten.
• The federal government allowed riders to be arrested in Mississippi to prevent further violence.
• The rides pressured the government to enforce desegregation in interstate travel.

Freedom Summer (1964)

• The goal was to increase Black voter registration in Mississippi.
• Volunteers, including white students, participated to draw national attention.
• KKK violence led to the deaths of three civil rights workers, but the perpetrators weren't charged initially.
• The movement faced intimidation, church burnings, and job losses.
• The campaign built momentum for the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Legislative Changes

Civil Rights Act (1964)

• Driven by the Freedom Rides and the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
• President Lyndon B. Johnson successfully pushed it through Congress despite opposition.
• It outlawed racial discrimination in public spaces, workplaces, and schools.
• The Act banned practices that restricted voting rights.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

• Addressed barriers like literacy tests that hindered Black voter registration.
• MLK and activists met violent resistance in Selma during voter registration efforts, resulting in Bloody Sunday.
• President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, banning discriminatory voting practices.
• Black voter registration in the South exceeded 50% within two years.

Key Figures and Groups

• Martin Luther King Jr.

  • Leader of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and co-founder of the SCLC.
  • His Letter from Birmingham Jail and "I Have a Dream" speech influenced public opinion.
  • He maintained contact with Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to push for civil rights legislation.
  • Assassinated in 1968, his death contributed to the passage of the Fair Housing Act.

• Malcolm X

  • A Nation of Islam figure advocated for Black nationalism and self-defense.
  • He focused on urban issues.
  • He criticized integration and civil rights leaders, and promoted self-reliance.
  • Assassinated in 1965, and his death helped push the Voting Rights Act through Congress.

• Lyndon B. Johnson

  • At first, he opposed civil rights but later played a crucial role in passing the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965).
  • His administration responded to pressure from the Selma marches and Malcolm X's assassination.
  • He signed the Fair Housing Act after MLK's assassination.

Key Organizations

• NAACP

  • Played a critical role in legal challenges to segregation, including Brown v. Board.
  • Helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and Freedom Summer.
  • Criticized for being too moderate by some Black activists.

• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

  • Emphasized non-violent resistance and played a key role in protests.
  • Organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott and voter registration drives in Alabama.
  • Clashed with Black nationalists over its integrationist stance.

• Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

  • Led voter registration efforts in the South and organized Freedom Rides.
  • Became more radical in the late 1960s, shifting towards Black nationalism.

• Nation of Islam (NOI)

  • Advocated for Black separatism and self-sufficiency.
  • Opposed non-violent resistance and integration.
  • Gained many followers, particularly in Northern cities, but alienated white allies.

Apartheid South Africa (1948–1964)

Nature and Characteristics of Discrimination

"Petty Apartheid" Legislation (1948–1958)

• The first phase of apartheid under Malan and Strijdom ensured dominance over Black South Africans.

"Grand Apartheid" Legislation

• The second phase of apartheid, initiated by H.F. Verwoerd in the late 1950s, focused on territorial division.
• It claimed to be "moral" by arguing that Africans would achieve self-governance.

Segregation and Discriminatory Laws

• Population Classification & Forced Removals:

  • The Population Registration Act (1950) categorized people by race.
  • Families were split based on new racial classifications.

• Group Areas Act (1950):

  • City centers were designated for whites only.
  • Townships increased for Black residents with minimal amenities.
  • 1/4 of Black people were forcibly removed from their homes.

• Pass Laws Act (1952):

  • Non-whites had to carry a 96-page identification book.
  • It was a crime to be in urban areas without permits.

Segregation in Daily Life

• Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949): Banned marriages between whites and non-whites.

• Immorality Act (1950): Criminalized sexual relations between whites and non-whites.

• Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953): Segregated public facilities.

• Bantu Education Act (1953):

  • Segregated schools by race.
  • Black children received inferior education designed to keep them in low-wage labor.

• Extension of University Education Act (1959): Required universities to admit only one racial group.

Protests and Resistance

Non-Violent Protests

• Bus Boycotts:

  • The first major boycott was in 1940.
  • The 1957 Alexandra bus boycott gained national attention and white sympathy.

• Defiance Campaign (1952):

  • Organized by the ANC.
  • Peaceful protests against apartheid laws.
  • Increased ANC visibility but failed to repeal laws.

• Freedom Charter (1955):

  • Unified anti-apartheid groups.
  • Called for democracy and social justice.
  • Led to the Treason Trial (1956–1961), where 156 activists (including Mandela) were arrested.
  • All defendants were found not guilty, but ANC leadership was weakened.

Increasing Violence: Sharpeville Massacre (1960)

• 50,000 protesters gathered outside a police station.
• Police opened fire, killing 69 unarmed people.
• It resulted in international outcry but no government response.
• Led to a shift towards armed resistance.

Armed Struggle and the Rivonia Trial (1963–1964)

• Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) formed as the armed wing of the ANC.
• Operation Mayibuye, a plan for guerrilla war, was discovered.
• Mandela and 10 others were arrested.
• They were sentenced to life imprisonment, marking the "end of an era."
• South Africa faced increased international isolation.

Key Figures and Groups

Nelson Mandela

• Leader of the ANC and MK.
• Key strategist in the liberation movement.
• Principal defendant in the Treason and Rivonia Trials.
• Inspired global support through his speech during the Rivonia Trial.

Albert Luthuli

• President of the ANC (1952–1967).
• Advocate of non-violent resistance.
• Won the Nobel Peace Prize, which brought international attention to apartheid.

African National Congress (ANC)

• Founded in 1910.
• Organized major protests, including the Defiance Campaign.
• Collaborated with the South African Communist Party (SACP).
• Eventually banned and driven underground.

South African Communist Party (SACP)

• Reformed in 1953 after being banned.
• Led by white leaders and had strong ties to the ANC.
• Played a major role in radicalizing the liberation movement.

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)

• Armed wing of the ANC, formed in response to state violence.
• Focused on sabotage against government infrastructure.
• Many members were arrested, and the group was dismantled by 1964.

Impact and Legacy

• The apartheid system remained intact despite resistance.
• Global opposition increased through economic sanctions and cultural boycotts.
• The ANC leadership was weakened, but the struggle continued underground and internationally.
• The imprisonment of Mandela and other leaders symbolized the resilience of the movement.