Citizenship, Dred Scott, and Whiteness
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the significance of citizenship in the context of the provided content?

  • Citizenship mainly provided exemption from certain taxes and levies.
  • Citizenship had little impact on an individual's access to resources or opportunities.
  • Citizenship was a key indicator of power, entitling individuals to rights such as voting, jury service, and land ownership. (correct)
  • Citizenship primarily granted access to social gatherings and community events.

What was the central argument presented by Dred Scott in his case against Sandford?

  • He claimed that his relocation to free states entitled him to emancipation from slavery. (correct)
  • He argued for the right of enslaved people to own property.
  • He challenged the constitutionality of slavery in all US territories.
  • He sought compensation for the labor he performed while enslaved.

What was the Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford?

  • The Supreme Court declared that all enslaved people residing in free states were automatically emancipated.
  • The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Dred Scott, granting him his freedom and citizenship rights.
  • The Supreme Court determined that because Dred Scott was 'of Negro descent,' he was not a citizen and could not claim rights and privileges. (correct)
  • The Supreme Court avoided making a ruling, deferring the decision to the state courts.

Which of the following describes the primary purpose of the Fourteenth Amendment?

<p>To guarantee citizenship rights to any person born in the United States. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concern did critics of the Thirteenth Amendment voice?

<p>It would grant citizenship rights to Black men. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prior to the 14th amendment, who was typically entitled to the rights of citizenship?

<p>Only white men. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What historical context is essential for understanding the concept of 'Whiteness' as discussed in the content?

<p>Whiteness, in both cultural and legal terms, has a complex and shifting history, purposefully enshrined in laws and policies for the oppression of non-white people. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The content implies that the US Supreme Court once made rulings based on:

<p>Whether a person met a certain racial criteria, or whether they were white enough, to be considered a citizen. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the Rhinelander case, what was a key factor in determining someone's 'whiteness' in the past?

<p>Physical appearance, as determined by a jury's examination. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what is one of the primary ways Whiteness manifests in contemporary American society?

<p>Presumptions about a person's status, trustworthiness, and threat level based on skin color. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the content suggest is the relationship between Whiteness and systemic racism?

<p>Whiteness is a social construct that helps to preserve white supremacy and perpetuate systemic racism. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of asking immigrants to 'assimilate' according to the content?

<p>It is a demand for immigrants to adopt aspects of Whiteness, reinforcing it as the desirable norm. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, why are schools today nearly as segregated as they were before the Brown v. Board of Education decision?

<p>Predominantly minority schools receive less funding, perpetuating a cycle of segregation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the content suggest dismantling White Supremacy in American society?

<p>By recognizing how Whiteness operates and championing the narratives and power of non-white people. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by the statement that 'Whiteness moves and changes so that White Supremacy can be preserved'?

<p>The criteria for inclusion in Whiteness shift to maintain power imbalances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of how Whiteness operates in society?

<p>A black man with a cell phone is approached by police and killed, while a white woman with a weapon solicitates marriage proposals on television (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the content describe the impact of Whiteness on the justice system??

<p>African Americans are incarcerated at consistently higher rates than white peoples. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the example of asking ethnic minorities to give their children 'normal' names signify, according to the content?

<p>An imposition of Whiteness as the desirable norm, marginalizing other cultural identities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Takao Ozawa's primary argument in his petition for naturalized citizenship?

<p>That Japanese people should be considered 'free white persons'. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the Supreme Court's reasoning in denying Bhagat Singh Thind's citizenship application?

<p>While high-caste Hindi speakers were similar to whites, they had intermarried too much with native Indian populations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the US v. Bhagat Singh Thind ruling impact the legal definition of whiteness in the U.S.?

<p>It established a subjective standard where whiteness was based on perception rather than scientific or ethnic criteria. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What actions did Finnish communities in Minnesota and Michigan undertake to prove their whiteness in the early 20th century?

<p>They renounced socialism, learned English, and assimilated religiously into their communities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Executive Order 9066 during World War II?

<p>It authorized the removal of people of Japanese ancestry to internment camps, regardless of citizenship status. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Hirabayashi v. US, what was the Supreme Court's justification for upholding the racial discrimination inherent in the internment of Japanese Americans?

<p>That in times of war, ethnic affiliations with an invading enemy could pose a greater danger. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the central claim made by Kip Rhinelander in seeking an annulment from his marriage to Alice Jones?

<p>That Alice had deceived him into believing she was white. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of evidence was presented to the jury in the Rhinelander annulment trial to prove Alice Jones's race?

<p>Alice Jones's exposed body. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the case of John Svan, a Finnish-American, reveal about the concept of whiteness in the early 20th century?

<p>Whiteness was a status that could be earned through cultural assimilation and perceived racial characteristics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What commonality can be drawn between the Finnish immigrants, and Native Americans?

<p>Both groups worked to earn their whiteness though the same assimilation methods despite their skin tone. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred from President Roosevelt's use of census data from 1940?

<p>The census can be used to identify and target specific racial or ethnic groups. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the Supreme Court's ruling in Korematsu v.US in 1944?

<p>The court sided with the government's right to imprison its own citizens based on ethnicity during wartime. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be said about Whiteness, based on the information provided?

<p>That it is not based in science or ethnicity, but instead upon a social construction of what it means to be White, created to marginalize people. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What prompted a state supreme court judge to consider Finnish immigrants as 'some of the whitest people in Europe'?

<p>They had lived in a cold/Northern climate for an extended period of time. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be said regarding Alice and Kip Rhinelander's marriage?

<p>Kip filed for an annulment as his family threatened to disinherit him for marrying a Black woman. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary legal justification used to deny Native Americans citizenship prior to the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924?

<p>Their perceived allegiance to their tribes, considered 'foreign powers'. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Supreme Court's ruling in Elk v. Wilkins (1884)?

<p>It reinforced the denial of citizenship to Native Americans, even if born in the US and having renounced tribal ties, based on racial grounds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) ruling impact the legal landscape of the United States?

<p>It established the 'separate but equal' doctrine, legitimizing segregation and Jim Crow laws. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main effect of the Alien Land Laws passed in the United States from the mid-1880s through the mid-1920s?

<p>They prohibited non-citizens, particularly Asian immigrants, from owning land. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the concept of the 'Yellow Peril' influence immigration policies and social attitudes in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

<p>It fueled discriminatory legislation, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, and fostered fear and hostility towards Asian immigrants. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What were the key provisions of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?

<p>It banned all immigration from China for ten years and prohibited Chinese nationals from obtaining US citizenship. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the Naturalization Act of 1906, and how did it impact the requirements for becoming a US citizen?

<p>It established uniform naturalization laws and prescribed cultural requirements, such as learning English, for citizenship. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which groups were effectively barred from immigrating to the United States under the Immigration Act of 1917?

<p>People from the 'Asiatic Barred Zone,' those considered 'mentally defective,' and people with certain cultural characteristics or behaviors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the courts interpret the racial requirements for naturalization following the Naturalization Act of 1906?

<p>They actively litigated the definition of 'whiteness,' leading to inconsistent rulings and challenges based on appearance, ancestry, and cultural assimilation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the concept of 'performing whiteness' play a role in the experiences of individuals like Anita Hemmings?

<p>It highlighted the fluid and subjective nature of racial identity, where appearance, behavior, and cultural perception could influence how one was classified and treated. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What were the main concerns of white Americans regarding Chinese immigrants during the late 19th century, as reflected in the 'Yellow Peril' rhetoric?

<p>That Chinese immigrants would take their jobs as low-wage workers, refuse to assimilate by learning English, and dilute the white super-majority, threatening White/European power structures. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the requirement in the Naturalization Act of 1906 that a potential citizen affirm that 'he is not a polygamist or a believer in the practice of polygamy'?

<p>It targeted members of the LDS Church and reflected broader anxieties about cultural and religious practices that deviated from mainstream American norms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson contribute to the under-funding and closing of Black schools and public spaces during the Jim Crow era?

<p>It established the 'separate but equal' doctrine, but all-white power structures failed to invest in non-white spaces, leading to under-funding and closures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the impact of the Chinese Exclusion Act's repeal in 1943?

<p>It allowed Chinese nationals to once again obtain US citizenship, though immigration quotas remained in place. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the relationship between ancestry, melanin, and cultural performance in the construction of 'whiteness,' as suggested by the text?

<p>Whiteness is a combination of ancestry, melanin, and cultural performance, where cultural perception and behavior can significantly influence how one is classified and treated, even if ancestry and melanin suggest otherwise. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Whiteness

Legal and cultural construct defining belonging and privilege in the US. It granted rights like voting and land ownership.

Citizenship

Granted rights to vote, serve on juries, hold office, and own property, providing access to resources and opportunities.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1856 Supreme Court case denying citizenship to enslaved people, stating they were not intended to be included in the Constitution.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Freed enslaved Black people in Confederate territories during the Civil War.

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Thirteenth Amendment (1865)

Abolished slavery in the United States.

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Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

Guaranteed citizenship rights to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people.

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Reconstruction

Period after the Civil War focused on rebuilding the South and securing rights for formerly enslaved people.

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White Supremacy

Belief that white people are superior to other races, historically embedded in US laws and practices.

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Naturalization Act of 1870

Extended citizenship to "aliens of African nativity and persons of African descent."

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Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Banned Chinese immigration for ten years and prevented Chinese nationals from becoming US citizens.

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Alien Land Laws

Prohibited non-citizens from owning property.

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"Yellow Peril"

Fear and prejudice against Asian people, fueled by economic and cultural concerns.

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Elk v. Wilkins (1884)

Ruled that Native Americans, even when born in the US and renouncing tribal ties, were not automatically citizens.

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Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Established "separate but equal" doctrine, legalizing segregation.

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Nationalization Act of 1906

Established uniform naturalization laws and required immigrants to learn English.

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Immigration Act of 1917

Limited immigration through literacy tests and barred immigration from the "Asiatic Barred Zone."

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Ethno-nationalism

Belief that one's own ethnic group and national interests are of utmost importance.

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Indian Citizenship Act

Guaranteed citizenship rights to Native American people.

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Performing Whiteness

An individual's performance and adoption of behaviors associated with whiteness.

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Alien Land Laws' Impact

Restricted land ownership based on citizenship status, targeting Asian immigrants.

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Jim Crow Laws

Racial segregation and discrimination became normalized.

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Immigration Restrictions

Laws and policies designed to exclude or restrict certain groups from immigrating to a country.

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John Elk's Citizenship Attempt

John Elk's attempt to claim citizenship based on birth in the US and renunciation of tribal ties.

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Whiteness Definition

The flexible and shifting definition of 'Whiteness' is a strategy to maintain White Supremacy at the expense of non-white people.

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Melanin and Perception

Having less melanin often leads to assumptions about a person's status, perceived threat level, trustworthiness, and integration into American society.

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Elements of Whiteness

Beyond skin tone, factors like religion, language, and political views also influence perceptions of a person's 'Whiteness'.

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Whiteness as 'Normal'

American society tends to view 'Whiteness' as the standard for what is desirable, normal, and good.

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Assimilation and Whiteness

Demanding that immigrants 'assimilate' often means expecting them to adopt traits associated with 'Whiteness'.

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Racism and Policies

Systemic racism persists through policies and practices that uphold 'Whiteness' as the standard.

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Dismantling Racism

Acknowledging and understanding 'Whiteness' is crucial for dismantling systemic racism in America.

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Benefits of Whiteness

The legal, cultural, and economic advantages of Whiteness are connected with power and privilege in today’s America.

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Creating a Racially Pluralistic Society

If we want to dismantle White Supremacy, part of that is recognizing how Whiteness operates, and then making a conscious effort toward creating a racially pluralistic society that values and accepts racial, ethnic, cultural, and behavior diversity, rather than upholding Whiteness as goodness.

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Examining the History of Whiteness

Examining Whiteness throughout American history is the best way to understand that qualifying as White has been the key to accessing power, resources, and opportunity in America, and it continues to be that way today.

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Ozawa v. United States (1922)

Ozawa argued Japanese people should be considered "free white persons" to gain citizenship.

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Ozawa Ruling

The Supreme Court ruled Japanese people were ineligible for citizenship because they were not "Caucasian."

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Bhagat Singh Thind's Argument

Thind argued that as a "high-caste Aryan," he should be considered white and eligible for citizenship.

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US v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923)

The Supreme Court ruled that Hindi-speaking, high-caste people were not white enough for citizenship due to intermarriage.

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Whiteness Definition Post-Thind

Whiteness became a social construct, defined by recognition rather than scientific definition.

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John Svan Case (1908)

Svan's citizenship was initially rejected because Finnish immigrants initially deemed 'mongols' and 'yellow' did not qualify for naturalization.

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Finns Earning Whiteness

Finnish communities proved their whiteness by renouncing socialism, learning English, and assimilating.

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Executive Order 9066

Designated areas as "military areas," authorizing the removal of Japanese ancestry people to internment camps.

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Korematsu v. US (1944)

Upheld the government's right to imprison citizens based on ethnicity during wartime.

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Hirabayashi v. US (1943)

The supreme court argued that racial discrimination is justified during war when residents share ethnic ties with an invading army.

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Alice Jones Case

Jones, a biracial woman, was accused of deceiving her husband about her race.

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Kip Rhinelander's Claim

Kip claimed Alice had deceived him into thinking she was white, leading to annulment proceedings.

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Trial Evidence in Alice Jones Case

Details about Alice's body were presented as evidence of her race.

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Jury's Role in Jones Case

The question of whether someone could reasonably believe Alice was white was put to a jury.

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Takao Ozawa

Japanese immigrant who argued that Japanese people should be considered 'free white persons'

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Study Notes

  • Less than 100 years ago, the US Supreme Court made rulings about whether individuals were "white enough" to be US citizens.

The History of Whiteness in the U.S.

  • Whiteness has cultural and legal definitions that have evolved throughout American history.
  • It was purposefully enshrined in laws, policies, and practices.
  • Understanding this history is crucial to understanding systemic racism.

Citizenship and Power

  • Citizenship was a critical marker for power, entitling men to vote, serve on juries, hold office, and own land.
  • Non-citizens were relegated to a second-tier status without access to the same resources and opportunities.

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1856)

  • Dred Scott, an enslaved black man, argued that living in free states entitled him to emancipation.
  • The Supreme Court denied his petition, stating that people "of Negro descent" were not intended to be included as citizens in the Constitution.

Reconstruction Era Amendments

  • The Emancipation Proclamation (1863) freed enslaved black people.
  • The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) formally ended slavery.
  • The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) guaranteed citizenship to anyone born in the US, but initially excluded Native Americans.

The Naturalization Act of 1870

  • Extended naturalized citizenship to "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent."
  • At this point, only "white" and black/"Negro" people could become US citizens.

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

  • Banned all immigration from China for ten years.
  • Prevented Chinese nationals from obtaining US citizenship until its repeal in December 1943.
  • This was driven by fears of economic and cultural threats posed by Chinese immigrants.

Alien Land Laws

  • Passed from the mid-1880s to the mid-1920s.
  • Prohibited non-citizens from owning property.
  • Upheld by Supreme Court decisions like Yamashita v. Hinkle (1922).
  • Coincided with the "Yellow Peril" propaganda, stoking fears about Asian people.

Elk v. Wilkins (1884)

  • John Elk, a Winnebago tribe member, renounced tribal allegiance and tried to register to vote.
  • The Supreme Court ruled that despite being US-born and renouncing tribal ties, Elk was not entitled to citizenship because he was not white (or black), effectively disenfranchising Native Americans.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

  • Established the "separate but equal" doctrine, providing legal justification for Jim Crow laws.
  • Plessy, who was 7/8 European descent, was arrested for sitting in a white-only railway car.
  • The Supreme Court upheld segregation as long as facilities were "equal," legalizing racial apartheid.
  • Overruled almost all of the legislative victories attained during Reconstruction.

Anita Hemmings at Vassar (1893-1897)

  • Anita Hemmings, who was of mixed-race, passed as white and attended Vassar College.
  • Her racial background was revealed shortly before graduation, causing a scandal.
  • This case highlighted how "race" is a subjective cultural perception, influenced by appearance, speech, and behavior .

Naturalization Act of 1906

  • Established uniform naturalization laws and cultural requirements, including learning English.
  • Required affirmation against polygamy.
  • Race was not explicitly mentioned but became a contested issue in legal challenges.

Immigration Act of 1917

  • Limited immigration by requiring literacy tests.
  • Barred immigration from the "Asiatic Barred Zone" and excluded people considered "mentally defective," poor, politically active, sick, and LGBTQ+.

Ozawa v. United States (1922)

  • Takao Ozawa, a Japanese immigrant, argued that Japanese people should be considered "free white persons."
  • The Supreme Court denied his petition, stating that Japanese people were "Mongoloid" and not white, limiting citizenship to those "popularly known as the Caucasian race."

US v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923)

  • Bhagat Singh Thind, an Indian Sikh man, argued that he was of Aryan/Caucasian origin and should be considered white.
  • The Supreme Court ruled that while Hindi-speaking high-caste people were "white-adjacent," they didn't count as white for citizenship due to intermarriage with native Indian populations.
  • Legal basis for whiteness became "I can't define it, but I know it when I see it."

The Case of John Svan

  • John Svan, a Finnish-American, was initially rejected for citizenship because Finnish immigrants were considered "mongols" and "yellow."
  • A judge ruled that Finns had become "the whitest people in Europe" due to living in a cold/Northern climate for an extended period of time.
  • The Finnish communities in Minnesota and Michigan had to work to earn their whiteness.
  • They undertook large-scale campaigns to prove their whiteness by renouncing socialism, learning English, engaging in capitalistic business practices, and assimilating religiously.

Japanese Internment During WWII

  • President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of people of Japanese ancestry to internment camps, regardless of citizenship.
  • He used census data from 1940 to see which areas were predominantly Japanese.

Hirayabashi v. US (1943) and Korematsu v. US (1944)

  • The Supreme Court sided with the government's right to imprison its own citizens based on ethnicity during wartime.
  • Upheld the government's actions, arguing that ethnic affiliations with an invading enemy posed a danger.

The Rhinelander Case (1920s)

  • Alice Jones, a biracial woman, married Kip Rhinelander, a member of a prestigious New York family, causing a scandal.
  • Kip sought an annulment, claiming Alice deceived him into thinking she was white.
  • The trial included the jury's examination of Alice's naked body to determine her race.
  • The jury ruled that Alice could not be white, denying the annulment.

Whiteness Today

  • Whiteness remains synonymous with power and privilege.
  • Perceptions of status, threat, innocence, trustworthiness, and fit in American society are influenced by skin color.
  • Behaviors and values related to religion, language, and politics play a role.

Dismantling Systemic Racism

  • Requires grappling with Whiteness and understanding its role in preserving White Supremacy.
  • We need to decouple Whiteness and goodness.
  • We need to embrace narratives outside the norm of Whiteness.
  • We need to champion the narratives, experiences, leadership, and power of non-white people.

Assimilation and Whiteness

  • Demands for immigrants to "assimilate" and for ethnic minorities to adopt "normal" names or "speak intelligently" are examples of upholding Whiteness as the desirable norm.
  • Dismantling White Supremacy requires recognizing how Whiteness operates and embracing racial, ethnic, cultural, and behavioral diversity.

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Explore citizenship significance, Dred Scott case arguments, Supreme Court rulings, and the Fourteenth Amendment's purpose. Unpack concerns about the Thirteenth Amendment, historical context of 'Whiteness,' and its contemporary manifestations in American society, including its relationship with systemic racism.

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