Chromalveolata Supergroup

• Alveolates and stramenopiles are classified under the supergroup Chromalveolata.
• Chromalveolata are within the domain Eukaryote.

Stramenopiles

• Diatoms, brown algae, and oomycetes are organisms classified as stramenopiles.
• Stramenopiles' chloroplasts originate from red algae via secondary endosymbiosis.

Diatoms

• Diatoms are unicellular and known as "atoms".
• Diatoms are photo autotrophs as a food source.
• Physical features: yellow/brown, silica cell wall, gametes have flagella for mobility
• Diatoms store energy as oil.
• Water filters are a human use for diatoms.

Brown Algae

• Brown algae are multicellular.
• Brown algae are photo autotrophs.
• Physical features: brown, cellulose & algin cell wall
• Brown algae form like a plant (thallus).
• Humans eat it, and algin is used as a food thickener.

Oomycetes

• Oomycetes are 2n diploid.
• Oomycetes have a filamentous structure with a cellulose cell wall.
• Oomycetes are multinucleate.
• Oomycetes resemble fungus, but their cell walls consist of cellulose instead of chitin.
• They feed through absorption (digesting and ingesting).
• Phytophthoia infestants (potato) is an example of oomycetes.
• Possess flagella for motility.
• Mycelia genetics differ from fungi because they have a cell wall & are diploid, similar to fungi because they are multi nucleic and absorptive.

Alveolates

• Alveolates have flattened single-membrane alveolar sacs (alveoli) arranged beneath the plasma membrane.

Apicomplexans

• Apicomplexans are unicellular.
• Apicomplexans possess an apical-cytoskeleton complex.
• They have a complicated life cycle.
• Plasmodium in female mosquitoes are pathogens and cause malaria.

Ciliates

• Ciliates are unicellular
• Ciliates use an oral groove & cell mouth for feeding and locomotion.
• They are heterotrophic and ingestive.
• They reside in aquatic environments.
• Ciliates use cilia for locomotion and feeding.
• Contractile vacuoles regulate osmo.
• They exhibit both micro and macro sexual behavior and act like animals.
• Paramecium is an example.

Dinoflagellates

• Dinoflagellates are unicellular.
• Dinoflagellates feed as heterotrophs.
• They are known as phytoplankton.
• Color: red
• Dinoflagellates use 2 flagella for motility.
• Special features include bioluminescence and a mutualistic relationship with coral.
• Karenia brevis causes red tides.
• Dinoflagellates are associated with red tides and are under Alveolate supergroup.

Water Filters

• Dinoflagellate- Alveolate and Diatoms are phyla used in water filters.

Fungi Resemblance

• Oomycetes are phyla that resemble fungi.

Apical complex

• Cytoskeleton makes up the apical complex.

Malaria

• Malaria is classified as Apicomplexa Alveolate, and mosquitoes spread it.

Paramecium

• Micronucleus: sexual reproduction & genetic diversity
• Macronucleus: asexual reproduction & daily functions
• Contractile vacuole: osmoregulation

Plasmodium Life Cycle

• Plasmodium needs two hosts for its life cycle.
• Sporozoites are injected into humans.
• Sporozoites migrate to the liver, turn into schizonts, and rupture.
• Merozoites travel to red blood cells.
• Red blood cell burst and symptoms follow.
• Gametes are produced.
• In mosquitoes, gametes fertilize and form ookinetes.
• Oocyst is the last structure.

Fungi

• Fungi are mostly multicellular.
• In general, fungi live in soil/dead matter.
• Chytrids live in moisture, with key structures like flagella spores-zoospores, and flagella gametes.
• Yeast is unicellular, lives on water, and contains melanin.
• Filament network is called mycelium, located underground and made of hyphae cells

Fungi: cell structure

• Fungi have exoskeletons with chitin, glucan similar to cholesterol and ergosterol (steroid).
• Fungi consist of nucleus, DNA wrapped around histones and important organelles such as mitochondria, golgi apparatus and ER.
• Pigments protect the fungi.

Fungi: nutrition

• Fungi are absorptive heterotrophs that secrete hydrolytic enzymes & acids.
• Fungi are saprobes/decomposers.
• Fungi can be parasitic and penetrate cell walls.
• Fungi can be symbiotic (ex: mycorrhizal fungi) or predatory.

Fungi: reproduction

• Fungi reproduce through fruiting body spores and mycelium.
• Fairy rings are one fungus and deplete nitrogen.
• Fungi spores are haploid, disperse & form haploid mycelium (1n), perform asexual and sexual reproduction.
• They're also dispersed by air/water & germinate on food source.

Fungi: asexual reproduction

• Zygomycetes have asexual reproduction.
• Asexual reproduction in fungi is common and goes through mitosis and genetically matches.
• Types: conidiospores & sporangiospores
• Spores allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments.
• Spores released from sporangium (reproductive sac)
• Budding: bulge forms on side and divides mitotically- somatic cells ir
• Fragmentation: another mechanism for the reproduction of fungus

Fungi: sexual reproduction

• Sexual reproduction in fungi can be + or - mating types with no gender.
• Homothallic/ self-fertile: both mating types are in the same mycelium.
• Heterothallic: two different mycelia
• Zygote (2n) always does meiosis, making genetically diverse spores and never has a multicellular 2n stage.

Forming a zygote

• Plasmogamy is the fusion of haploid + & - hyphae cells.
• Heterokaryotic stage: hyphae with unfused haploid nuclei of both types.
• Karyogamy: fusion of +/- haploid nuclei to form zygote 2n
• Always does meiosis & never has a multicellular 2n stage

Fungi: phylogeny

• Zygomycota have an asexual cycle that makes zygosporangium and can reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores.
• Saprobes are their role in nature and ex: bread mold (rhizopus).
• Chytrids are the oldest/primitive and have chitin in cell walls.

Fungi: chytrids

• Chytrids are unicellular and aquatic.
• Chytrids possess coenocytic hyphae and retain flagella.
• Flagellated spores: zoospores & gametes
• Saprobes/parasites: role in nature
• Ascomycetes: sexual spores: ascospores live in ascus and asexual spores: conidiospores released by conidiophores
• Ex: cup fungus, tuber melanosporum (a truffle).
• Basidiomycota: sexual spores: basidiospores- basidia reproductive organs
• Glomeromycota: mutualism of fungi & plants called mycorrhizae.
• Give water/ minerals to the plant and fungi gets glucose/nitrogen

Fungi: importance

• Decomposers damage property, mutualists, pathogens, benefit medicine and research.
• Food and poisonous
• Ecto vs endo mycorrhizae: ecto - ascomycota, basidiomycetes. zygomycota- grab nutrients w/o going into cell wall
• Endo- glomeromycota: goes into the cell wall and does not go into the cytoplasm
• Asexual reproduction takes fragmentation, budding, and spore formation.
• The 5 types of fungi are chytrids, zygomycetes, glomeromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
• Fungi thrive in damp environments because they require moisture for nutrient absorption, enzyme activity, and spore germination.
• Pathogens are a use of fungi, plants- ruts and smuts- ergot; medicine- what medicines can they produce?

Fungi: importance

• Fungi can be mutualists with algae, cyanobacteria and plants;
• Food: yeasts for fermentation, eat mushrooms
• Medicine: what medicines can they produce? they can produce antibiotics, penicillin.
• Pathogenic infections: ringworm, oral thrush, candida, mycosis infection due to fungus and are food sources.

Fungi: pathogens

• In Plants: ergot, rusts and smuts
• Ergotism- animal disease: salem witch trials, probable cause of St. Anthony's fire
• Ergot-plant disease.
• Charophytes live in: water
• Land plants have a common ancestor with?: charophytes
• Chlorophytes: multi cellular and have are in cell wall
• Organelle- cholorplasts, pigment. chlorophyll and storage molecule is starch

Plant adaptations

• Life cycle: water to land, dangers: dry up, reproduction change: roots, support: lignin
• Air Co2
• Light is more direct minerals/ nutrients and less eating of plants less competition
• Waxy cuticle: keeps moisture in, also protects plants from drying lignin to support the plant structure
• Wind blows gametes to each others protective layer on reproductive mechanisms and seeds
• Structure: apical meristem: structure in plants that lets them shoot out roots/ network more access to minerals, water
• Waxy cuticle: keeps moisture in, also protects plants from

Alternation of generations

• Haploid (gametophyte), another plants gamete
• Fertilization, diploid (sporophyte), zygote (2n)
• Meiosis to make spores and mitosis to return to diploid.
• Ergot: rust and smut plant infection
• Ergotism: animal infection
• Mycosis: infection due to fungus in humans
• Chytrids: fungi that are killing lots of amphibians right now
• Yeasts: unicellular, fermentation and anaerobic

Shared characteristics between plants, charophytes, and chlorophytes

• Multicellular
• Cell wall, chloroplasts and chlorophyll
• Alteration of generations: diploid and haploid life cycle
• Purpose of waxy cuticle: protect against drying out
• Desiccation: drying out
• Apical meristem: region of cells capable of division and growth in the root and shoot tips in plants
• Sporophyte: diploid
• Gametophyte: haploid

Charophyte cycle

• Multicellular
• Fertilization
• Splitting
• Meiosis
• Zygote (2n) unicellular
• No attachment of generations
• Mitosis
• 4 spores
• Nonvascular
• Bryophytes
• Seedless
• Small
• No roots, rhizoids for attachment
• Reproduction through water, not seeds
• Dominant form: gametophyte (a) - live the longest
• Gametes: eggs and flagellated sperm
• Sporophyte (b)- dependent on gametophyte for food and water: grows within archegonia of gametophyte
• Sporangium makes many haploid spores
• Liverworts: gametophytes resemble trees
• Foot: absorb nutrients
• Seta: moves nutrients through the body (general parts of the bryophyte)
• Capsule: spores meiosis
• Small sporophytes: leafy & thalloid (body wheats)

Nonvascular plants

• Hornworts: horn-like shape of sporophyte soils and symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria,(gametophyte is base, sporophyte is tall part)
• Moss: most numerous of non vascular and live in extreme environments with the help of capsule and seta
• Importance of non vascular plants: pioneer species colonized soil and Sphagnum "peat moss": important wetlands, also harvested for fuel. Some peatlands have preserved corpses for thousands of years Decomp of plant matter.

Other terms to know

• Stomata: regulates gas exchange and used to preserver water
• Antheridium: holds sperm - protected gametangia
• Archegonium: protects egg
• Secondary metabolites: produced by the plant to escape predators
• Bryophytes: seedless, nonvascular plants, no roots
• Sporangium: hold spores
• Gametophyte: dominant form of bryophytes
• Foot: absorb nutrients
• Seta: transport nutrients
• Capsule: holds spores (where meiosis happens)
• Peat: dead matter - mosses thrive in it
• Seedless vascular plants (SVP) characteristics: -don't need gametophyte for nutrition, branched leaves, dominant phase- sporophyte (2n) transport:
• Phloem: moves sugars, amino acids, organic products
• Xylem: moves water/ minerals- lignified cells
• True roots
• Lignified vascular tissue enabled plants to grow tall
• Lycophytes: club mosses, quill worts and spike mosses
• Pterophytes Whisk fern: (ferns & relatives)- all depend on water- flagellum and dichotomus branching
• No true leaves or roots, homosporous (male and female), photosynthesis occurs in the stem

Pterophytes horsetails, ferns and leaves

• Horsetails: cone like structure: (strobilus) and photosynthesis happens in stems.
• Ferns: most widespread & monilophytes, homosporous, large megaphylls and live in rainforest:
• Sori: spores on the bottom of spore leaves,
• Epiphyte: grows on the surface of plants
• Microphyll (only lycophytes and unbranched vascular tissue)
• Megaphyll leaves SVP: true leaves, highly branched vascular system, greater photosynthetic productivity and contained by all other vascular plants
• Lifecycle: sporophyte, sporangia, meiosis, spores, germination and mitosis

Gametophyte and sporophyte

• Antheridium (sperm) and archegonium (egg)
• Fertilization, zygote, and mitosis
• Importance of Seedless Plants- Mosses
• Pollution indicator
• Ferns promote weathering of rocks
• Food for animals, accelerates topsoil formation
• Peat moss:
• Sphagnum- fuel and soil conditioner
• Extinct SVPs: coal-energy source

More terms to know

• Xylemarchegonium: moves water
• Phloem: carry sugars, amino acids, organic products
• Sori: holds spores under ferns
• Epiphytes: a plant that grows on another plant but is not parasitic
• Sphnagum: Name of peat moss
• Archegonium: holds eggs
• Antheridium: holds sperm
• Megaphyll: bigger, lots of vascular branches
• Microphyll: small, one vascular branch only - lycophytes
• Sporophytes: diploid form of fern life cycle
• Gametophytes: haploid form of fern life cycle

Seed plant history

• Water -> land plants, bryophytes seedles non vascular plants, seed plants
• Seedless vascular on swamping land, seed vascular and conifers
• Archeaplastida: Chlorophytes: Landplants: Vasc: Gymnosperms seed: naked, gametes: male & female reduced, pollination: wind
• Tracheid cells and lignified xylem
• Life cycle, alteration of generations, dominant- sporophyte and heterosporous
• Reproductive organism location- strobuli cones and no flowering

Monoecious and Dioecious spores

• Monoecious spores are both male & female spores on the same plant.
• Dioecious spores have male & female spores on different plants.
• Gymnosperms: Coniferophyta are male and pollen Cones or female and ovulate cones and live in high altitudes,needle leaves, ex) pine, spurce
• Cycads: male & female, flagella cones and structure is fern like.
• Pollination is with the help of beetles.
• Ginkgophyta: use ginko biloba for herbal medicine, male is flagellated sperm in strobili female is sporophylls NOT cones.
• Gnetophyta: types: tropics, africa, u.s deserts, male & female strobili, sperm not motile (no flagella), use- ephedra- herbal medicine (u.s desert)

Angiosperms

• Innovations: fruit- mature ovary of a flower and purpose: protects seed
• Dispersal though animals eating and pooping seeds
• Flower structure facilitates sexual reproduce
• Carpel is female and stigma: sticky tip receives pollen, style: long tube from stigma to ovary and ovary: holds eggs Stamen is male
• Filament: holds up pollen sac
• Anther: pollen sac
• Sepals: green leaf- like enclose flower for protection (calyse) and petals: attract pollinators (corolla)
• Egg, ovule megasporangium, megasporocyte (2n)

Meiosis

• 4 megaspores (1n)
• Only large ones survive (mitosis 3x)
• 8 nuclei, 7 cells, 3 cells- one becomes egg & 2 synergids and 3 remaining become antipodal cells
• Sperm: microsporangia and male sporocytes (2n)
• Microspores (1n), pollen grains
• 1 generative cell & 1 tube cell
• Double fertilization: 2 sperm cells
• Sperm #1 + egg= zygote (2n)
• Sperm #2 + central nuclei= endosperm (3n) food supply in seed
• Angiosperms: famale gametophyte: egg the endosperm producing cell- supports
• Embryo growth to define zygote
• Seed germinates to sporophyte
• Seed: protection, nourishment and dormant

Angiosperms vs Gymnosperms

• Angiosperms male gametophyte have sperm contained in pollen grainsand protects it from dessication.
• Sperm reaches the female by bugs, butterflies, bees
• Gymnosperm adaptations: megaspores- female ovule matures in ovule to reduce dessication, reduce uv damage, smaller, unfertilized and germinates in ovule
• microspores- male pollen, protected by sporopollenin and pollen grains pollenation transfer
• Megaspore: female gametophytes
• Microspore: male gametophytes (pollen)
• Ovule: contains the egg and seed: fertilized ovule
• Micropyle: pollen entrance place for the ovule
• Sporopollenin: protect pollen grains
• Gymnosperm vs angio seeds: gymno- naked and angio- protected in fruit
• Monoecious: male and female are in the same spore
• Dioecious: male and female = separate plants
• Traechid: lignified cell found in the xylem of vascular plants
• Strobili: cones

Animal characteristics

• Multicelluar, no cell walls and 2n diploid, unique cell types: muscle tissue, nervous tissue and organ systems: 1) nervous, 2) reproductive- embryo formation- ex of a larvae stage
• Heterotrophs are the source of food
• Eukaryotic ancestor: opisthonkonta and archaeplastida
• The land plants, chromoalveolata

• alveolates dinoflagellates, apicomplexans and ciliates

• Chromoalveolata-> stramenopiles
• Oomycetes, diatoms and brown algae
• Embryo development: 1) fertilization and 2) zygote (2n)
• Cleavage -cell division (mitosis)

Gastrula

• Archentron (digestive system) looks like opening ,arched
• Blastopore (opening at the bottom of gastrula)
• Three layers:
• Ectoderm: outside, skin, nails
• Mesoderm: middle, muscles
• Endoderm: Gl tract

Genes

• Hox genes are responsible for mice sharing genes with humans and determine body plan.
• Animal body plans: radial sessile attached planes of symmetry
• Benefits: experiences environment from all angles
• Ex) sea anemone, jellyfish
• Bilateral have orientations such as anterior and posterior and also dorsal and lateral
• Importance of cephalization: collection of nervous system at head zygote ' cleavage produces an 8 cell structure
• Blastula: zygote ' cleavage produces an 8 cell structure
• Gastrula: cleavage done on a blastula
• Hox genes are genes that regulate an embryo's body plan
• Archenteron digestive tract
• Endoderm gl tract
• Ectoderm- skin, nails and hair
• Mesoderm muscle
• Radial symmetry where there is only top and bottom
• Cephalization collection of nervous system at the head
• Blastopore opening of the archenteron
• Choanoflagellates are closest living relative of animals
• Claviceps purpurea is a fungal pathogen that causes ergot on rye.

Protists

• Dinoflagellates are a group of protists are bioluminescent.
• Bryophytes and seedless vascular plants are alike.
• In both groups, sperm swim from antheridia to archegonia.
• During a double fertilization event, one sperm nucleus fuses with the 2 central nuclei (polar nuclei) to form the Endosperm
• Unlike almost all ferns, seed plants generate spores of two kinds.
• The rise and diversification of angiosperms came last (most recently)?
• You observe the gametes of a fungal species under the microscope and realize that they resemble flagellated animal sperm and this belongs to chytrids
• Fruits are generally derived from mature ovary of a flower
• A true coelem arises from tissue derived from mesoderm, while the pseudo coelm from the mesoderm and endoderm
• Endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract
• Phloem carries sugars from with the most chlorophyll to areas of the plant that don't make as much sugar
• During alternation of generations, the multicellular component is the gametophyte
• The club moss and spike moss are not true mosses. Instead, they are Lycophyta
• Sorus is the clump of sporangium -sporophyte generation in a fern.
• Sporophytes are diploid plants that produce haploid spores
• The gametophyte generation in seed plants. They would be homosporous