Child Development: Processes and Periods

• Child development is the pattern of movement or change that starts at conception and continues throughout life.
• Studying this field provides insights into human nature, adult behavior, cultural effects, and understanding expected developmental patterns.

Developmental Processes

• Development involves interconnected biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.
• Biological processes include physical changes like inherited genes, height, weight, motor skills, appearance, body system functions, and health.
• Cognitive processes involve changes in thought, intelligence, and language, such as intellectual abilities and problem-solving.
• Socioemotional processes involve changes in relationships, emotions, and personality, like emotional communication, moral reasoning, and responses to others.
• These three processes interact as people develop.

Periods of Development

• Prenatal period: from conception to birth, a single cell grows into a fetus and then a baby.
• Infancy period: from birth to 18-24 months, characterized by extreme dependence on adults as many psychological activities begin.
• Early childhood period: from the end of infancy to 6 years (preschool age), where children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills, and play with peers.
• Middle and late childhood period: from 6 to 11 years (elementary school age), where children master reading, writing, and arithmetic, are exposed to broader culture, focus on achievement, and increase self-control.
• Adolescence period: from 10-12 years to 18-19 years, involves rapid physical changes, pursuit of independence and identity, increased time with peers, and more abstract and logical thoughts.
• A cognitive shift occurs around 1st grade (middle and late childhood).

Themes in Child Development

• Nature vs. Nurture: the debate over biological versus environmental influences on development; both are important and work together.
• Timing of Experiences: examines the impact of early versus later experiences on development; both are important.
• Continuity/Discontinuity: explores whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
• Continuity involves gradual change (e.g., a child's first word is the result of months of growth).
• Discontinuity involves distinct stages (e.g., moving from not thinking abstractly to being able to think abstractly).
• Cohort effects are the influence of historical experiences on developmental outcomes.
• A cohort is a group of people born at a similar time who share similar experiences (e.g., baby boomers, millennials, Gen Z).

Theories of Child Development

• A theory is an interrelated set of ideas that explains and predicts.
• Theories guide the conceptualization of a process or problem in research.
• The main theoretical approaches are psychoanalytical, behavioral, social cognitive, and cognitive developmental.

Psychosexual Theory

• Freud's psychosexual theory describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily influenced by emotion.
• Early experiences with parents extensively shape development.
• Emphasizes early life experience, unconscious thought, emotion/personality, and development in distinct stages.

Psychosocial Theory

• Erikson's psychosocial theory proposes that development occurs in psychosocial stages, where the primary motivation is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with others.
• Emphasizes stages, development throughout the lifespan, a crisis at each stage, and the interaction between individual needs and social demands.
• It differs from psychosexual theory by emphasizing development throughout life and social stages, rather than focusing on the first 5 years and sexual stages.
• Psychosocial theory emphasizes social and environmental effects (relationships and cultural influences).
• It is important because, for example, infants need to trust the world (1st stage), and through consistent care, they learn to trust caregivers and their environment.

Cognitive Development Theory

• Piaget's cognitive development theory posits that children actively construct their understanding of the world through four age-related stages.
• Each stage involves a different way of understanding the world.
• Key aspects include active learning, development in stages, and qualitative changes in thinking at different stages.

Social Cognitive Theory

• Bandura's social cognitive theory agrees with behaviorists that development is learned and influenced by the environment, but also emphasizes the importance of thoughts (cognition).
• Key concepts include observational learning, modeling, and reciprocal determinism (Person-Environment-Behavior interaction).
• Differs from cognitive development theory; social cognitive theory focuses observation and the environment + behavior + cognition, while cognitive development focuses on thinking growing in stages as kids age, builds knowledge through experiences.
• The key idea is Environment + Behavior + Cognition.
• It differs from behaviorism by focusing on the mind, behavior, and observation, rather than just external behavior.
• Self-efficacy, a person's belief in their ability to do something, is necessary for motivation and success.
• People are more likely to try hard if they believe they can succeed.
• Complexity of observational behavior involves choices in what to observe and which environment to be in, which affects behavior and development.
• The Bobo Doll study is an example of modeling, where children imitated how other children beat up the doll.

Behavioral Theory

• Emphasizes observable behavior, cause-and-effect learning, and continuity (not stage-based).
• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): behavior is externally motivated, humans are not self-willed, and development occurs through external reinforcement.
• Reciprocal Determinism: a person's behavior, environment, and personal factors all interact and influence each other.
• The individual needs interact to develop the relationship, for example, with the need to trust the world.

Data Collection and Research Design

• Data Collection Methods:
  • Observation (lab-controlled, systemic, real world).
  • Naturalistic/structured observation in normal lives.
  • Survey/interview (quick, good for big amounts of people).
  • Standardized test.
  • Case study (in-depth look at a single person).
  • Data base.
• Experimental Design: involves random assignment, experimental and control groups, and allows inferences about cause and effect.
  • Independent variable: a manipulated experimental factor (the cause).
  • Dependent variable: the measured factor to see if it is affected by the IV (the effect).
• Correlational Design: measures the strength of the relationship between two variables, but does not indicate cause and effect.
• Research Strategies:
  • Longitudinal study: studies individuals or groups over a long period to identify individual differences and how change occurs over time.
  • Cross-sectional study: a relatively short-term study that provides indications of possible age differences or age changes, with potential cohort effects.
  • Sequential study: combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to compare cohorts while incorporating individual differences.
• Research Ethics:
  • Protection from harm.
  • Informed consent.
  • Confidentiality/anonymity.
  • Knowledge of results/debriefing.
  • Avoiding deception and coercion.

Conception and Genetics

• Epigenesis is the process where unorganized cell masses differentiate into organs and systems.
• Conception is the fusion of an egg and sperm to create a single cell.
• Zygote: a single cell formed through fertilization, containing 23 pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent.
• Infertility: the inability to conceive after 12 months.
• Treatments: include hormone therapy and assisted reproduction like IVF.
• In vitro fertilization (IVF): combines egg and sperm in a lab dish.
• IVF success rate declines as women age (less than 35 - 49-50%).
• IVF can increase likelihood of problems; IVF children function the same as naturally conceived kids.
• Dizygotic twins (fraternal): conceived from two different eggs with two different sperm, genetically distinct.
• Monozygotic twins (identical): from division of a single zygote after fertilization, sharing the same DNA.
• Down Syndrome: caused by an extra chromosome, leading to intellectual disability and physical abnormalities; treated with early intervention and special programs.
• Gene-Linked Abnormalities: produced by defective genes (e.g., diabetes, cystic fibrosis, PKU, Tay-Sachs disease).
  • Cystic fibrosis: a genetic disorder that interferes with mucus production; treated with physical therapy, enzymes, and antibiotics.
  • Diabetes: the body does not produce enough insulin; treated with insulin.
  • Phenylketonuria (PKU): a metabolic disorder that, if untreated, causes intellectual disability; managed with a special diet.
  • Tay-Sachs: a deceleration of mental and physical development; medication and diet are used, but death is likely by age 5.
• Hereditary and Environment Interaction: development results from continuous interaction (gene times environment).

Prenatal Development

• Prenatal period: from conception to birth.
• Prenatal periods include the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.
• Germinal Period: the first 2 weeks after conception.
  • Includes the creation of the zygote, rapid cell division (mitosis), implantation, and differentiation of cells into the blastocyst (becomes embryo) and trophoblast (provides nutrition and support).
  • The germination period ends when the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall.
• Embryonic Period: 2-8 weeks after conception.
  • The mass of cells is referred to as an embryo and includes intensification of cell division, migration, differentiation, formation of cell support systems, organ formation, and neural tube development.
  • The endoderm (inner layer) develops into the digestive and respiratory systems.
  • The mesoderm (middle layer) becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems.
  • The ectoderm (outer layer) becomes the nervous system, brain, and sensory receptors (e.g., skin, ears, nose, eyes).
• Fetal Period: 2 months after conception until birth, with viability at 24 weeks.
  • Fetal movement starts 5 to 6 weeks after conception.
  • Hiccups and swallowing emerge around 6 weeks.
  • Respiratory readiness for breathing independently begins around 10 weeks.
• The first trimester includes the germinal, embryonic, and the beginning of the fetal period.
• The 2nd and 3rd trimesters occur during the fetal period.

Trimesters

• First trimester: first 3 months.
• Second trimester: middle three months.
• Third trimester: last three months.

Teratogens and Childbirth

• Teratogens are substances that may cause physical or functional defects in the embryo or fetus.
• A Sleeper effect is when effects are not apparent until later (e.g., ADHD noticed during schooling).
• Dose-response relation: Potential problems depend on how mother is exposed to teratogen and for how long.
• Examples: alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, maternal diseases, diabetes.
• Childbirth preparation methods include Lamaze, Bradley, and Leboyer.
  • Lamaze Method: focuses on controlled breathing, relaxation, and partner support to manage pain naturally.
  • Bradley Method: emphasizes natural childbirth with little to no medical intervention, using deep breathing, partner coaching, nutrition, and exercise.
  • Leboyer Method: aims for a gentle birth experience using dim lighting, soft voices, warm baths, and delayed cord cutting.
• Labor coach: Bradley method encourages the father to be the coach.
• Techniques: include prepared childbirth classes, motivation to endure pain, relaxation and breathing techniques.
• Birth attendants: may include midwives, doulas.

Stages of Labor

• Stage 1: no pushing (dilation and effacement of cervix).
  • Latent phase: contractions are far apart and not very uncomfortable.
  • Active phase: dilation of cervix from 3/4 cm to 8 cm, contractions become closer and more intense.
  • Transition phase: closely spaced and strong contractions that are painful.
• Stage 2: birth of the baby, usually head first, face down.
• Stage 3: delivery of placenta and umbilical cord.
• Duration of labor stages goes down in a woman's second birth, sometimes by half.

Overview of child development, encompassing biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. It starts from conception and continues throughout life, with key periods, including the prenatal period.