Child Development and Family Dynamics
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Questions and Answers

What is a benefit of having a positive self-concept?

  • Strong social skills
  • Improved problem-solving skills
  • Ability to cope with adversity (correct)
  • Optimistic outlook

    • Emotional regulation skills help children cope with stress in unhealthy ways.

    False

    What do children learn through interactions with their family members?

    Valuable social skills.

    How do siblings contribute to a child's social development?

    <p>They provide opportunities for sharing, cooperation, competition, and conflict management.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a part of language development in middle childhood?

    <p>Reduced reading comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    School helps strengthen working memory through __________.

    <p>activities involving remembering instructions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do parents and siblings play in a child's moral development?

    <p>They serve as positive role models.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What benefits does a secure family base provide for children?

    <p>Emotional support, stability, and a sense of belonging.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Working memory capacity decreases during middle childhood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is effortful control?

    <p>The ability to regulate one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, particularly in challenging situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of effortful control?

    <p>Ignoring Relevant Stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does attachment change during early childhood?

    <p>The focus shifts from primary caregiver dependence to exploring the world and forming relationships with peers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What parenting style promotes the happiest and most successful children according to Baumrind?

    <p>Authoritative parenting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Baumrind's theory adequately addresses the unique characteristics of individual children.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cultural factors impact family structure and care, authorities, and __________.

    <p>values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is corporal punishment?

    <p>A form of physical discipline that involves hitting, spanking, or slapping a child to correct their behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an advantage of using induction as punishment?

    <p>Requires Little Effort</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do many experts want to limit children's screen time?

    <p>Excessive screen time can negatively affect children's development, impact sleep, attention, and contribute to health issues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Empathy = Understanding and sharing the feelings of others. Antipathy = Feelings of dislike or aversion toward others. Concrete Operational Stage = Logical thinking about concrete objects. Social Comparison = Evaluating oneself against peers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Empathy fuels prosocial behavior.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do childhood health habits affect adult health?

    <p>Habits established in childhood set the stage for lifelong health patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a risk of obesity?

    <p>Type 2 diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do traditional IQ tests measure?

    <p>Cognitive abilities, including verbal reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Flynn effect?

    <p>The observed increase in average IQ scores over generations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Brain scans should replace traditional intelligence tests.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is cognition in middle childhood termed as concrete operational by Piaget?

    <p>Children think logically about concrete objects but struggle with abstract thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors help children become resilient?

    <p>Secure attachment with caregivers, supportive relationships, and coping skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why very few people recognized childhood maltreatment 50 years ago.

    <p>Maltreatment was viewed as a private family matter, families feared judgment, there were fewer resources, limited research existed, and some cultural beliefs accepted physical discipline as normal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why childhood neglect is considered more harmful than abuse.

    <p>Neglect involves failing to provide basic needs consistently, impacting brain development, leading to psychological issues, and creating chronic stress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why it is difficult to know exactly how often child maltreatment occurs.

    <p>Cases go unreported due to fear and stigma, defining maltreatment varies, data collection methods may lack accuracy, and hidden cases exist.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment.

    <p>Higher rates of mental health issues, chronic physical health problems, difficulties with cognitive function, behavioral problems, and an increased risk of perpetuating abuse.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why Piaget called the first stage of cognition sensorimotor intelligence.

    <p>Infants learn through senses and actions, exploring the world and developing an understanding of cause and effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some key changes in preoperational thinking?

    <p>Symbolic representation, egocentrism, animism, centration, and lack of conservation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the steps of information processing theories.

    <p>Input, encoding, storage, retrieval, output; attention and working memory are involved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is object permanence and why is it important?

    <p>Object permanence is understanding that objects exist even when out of sight, crucial for reasoning, representation, attachment, and language development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the critiques of Piaget in infancy and early childhood?

    <p>Underestimating abilities, stage-based development concerns, methodological issues, cultural bias, and limited attention to social influences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do 10-month-olds refuse to crawl over visual cliffs?

    <p>They have developed depth perception and can distinguish between solid surfaces and drop-offs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the changes in memory across development?

    <p>Capacity and efficiency improve, with a shift from implicit to explicit memory and the development of memory strategies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the changes in language skills from infancy to early childhood?

    <p>Starts with cooing, babbling, single words, two-word phrases, leading to complex sentences and vocabulary expansion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Differentiate between egocentrism in a child and selfishness in an adult.

    <p>Egocentrism is a cognitive limitation in children; selfishness is a conscious choice in adults prioritizing self-interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain why Vygotsky thought that talking to oneself is an aid to cognitive development.

    <p>Private speech helps children guide their actions, regulate behavior, and internalize language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the advantages of teaching a child in two languages.

    <p>Cognitive benefits include enhanced memory and brain plasticity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe some advantages of children learning in preschools.

    <p>Social-emotional development, cognitive stimulation, language and literacy skills, early math skills, and preparation for kindergarten.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the goals of the Head Start program.

    <p>To provide preschool children with the knowledge, skills, and experiences they need to succeed academically.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe emotional development in early childhood and the role of emotion regulation.

    <p>Emotion regulation is vital for healthy relationships, coping with stress, and focusing on learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Discuss effortful control and how it is defined in early childhood.

    <p>Effortful control is the ability to regulate emotions and behaviors, essential for self-control in early childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sensory abilities change in infants during their first year?

    <p>Sight, sound, taste, and motor skills develop over the first year.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern of doctors regarding immunization rates in the United States?

    <p>Low vaccination rates can lead to outbreaks of preventable diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the nutritional benefits of breastfeeding until at least 1 year?

    <p>Provides essential nutrients and antibodies vital for growth and development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does malnutrition affect children's susceptibility to disease?

    <p>Malnutrition weakens the immune system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What basic emotions do infants express in their first year?

    <p>Contentment, distress, and interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What emotional differences are observed between infants in their first and second years of life?

    <p>Infants in the second year express a wider range of emotions including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors commonly trigger anger in infants?

    <p>Change in routine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are typical fears that 1-year-olds commonly experience?

    <p>Separation Anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Do traits of temperament tend to endure or change during development?

    <p>Temperament traits tend to endure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does context affect temperament in children?

    <p>Temperament is influenced by the environment, experiences, and parent-child interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does synchrony affect early emotional development?

    <p>Synchrony forms the foundation of secure attachment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining attachment expressed by infants?

    <p>Infants try to stay close to their caregivers, crying if separated and seeking physical contact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of attachment with their behaviors:

    <p>Secure Attachment = Easily comforted when distressed Insecure-Avoidant Attachment = Avoids caregivers Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment = Clingy and anxious Disorganized Attachment = Confused and fearful behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of assessing children using the Ainsworth Strange Situation?

    <p>To assess the quality of attachment bonds between infants and their primary caregivers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does secure attachment affect a child's development?

    <p>It leads to positive self-esteem and healthy relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three factors that help children develop their motor skills?

    <p>Maturation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has changed regarding childhood obesity rates compared to 50 years ago?

    <p>Today’s children face higher risk due to unhealthy diets and decreased physical activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does developmental science study?

    <p>Developmental science studies the reasons and mechanisms behind human development, examining how and why people of all ages change or stay the same over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The steps of the scientific method are 1. Pose a question, 2. Develop ________, 3. Test the hypothesis, 4. Draw conclusions, 5. Report the results, 6. _____

    <p>hypothesis; Repetition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nature and nurture are completely independent in human development.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between genetics and epigenetics?

    <p>Genetics is the study of genes and their functions, while epigenetics focuses on inheritable changes in gene expression caused by factors other than changes in DNA sequence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Critical period = A limited time frame during which specific development must occur. Sensitive period = A time when development is more easily achieved, but not limited to a specific timeframe. Cohort = A group of people born within the same time period. Age group = Denotes a person's stage in the life cycle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does plasticity in human development refer to?

    <p>Plasticity refers to the ability of human traits to be molded, while also maintaining a certain durability of identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are advantages of different scientific methods in developmental science? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Qualitative research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an IRB?

    <p>An institutional review board (IRB) is an entity responsible for overseeing the ethical aspects of research involving human subjects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three functions of theories in developmental science?

    <p>Theories produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of cognitive theories?

    <p>Cognitive theories focus on mental processes and how they influence behavior and development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the role of a genetic counselor.

    <p>Genetic counseling provides individuals and families with information, support, and guidance regarding genetic conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the three stages of prenatal development.

    <p>Germinal period (first 2 weeks), Embryonic period (3rd to 8th week), Fetal period (9th week until birth).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are behavioral teratogens?

    <p>Behavioral teratogens are agents that harm the prenatal brain, affecting the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the APGAR score used for?

    <p>The APGAR score is a quick assessment of a newborn's health, measuring heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a premature baby?

    <p>A premature baby is born before 37 weeks of gestation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes a zygote unique?

    <p>A zygote is genetically unique because it results from the combination of chromosomes from both parents, forming a new pattern.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define what an allele is.

    <p>An allele is a variant of a gene that determines a specific trait.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Infants typically double their birth weight within the first year.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the concept of heritability.

    <p>Heritability measures how much of the variation in a trait can be attributed to genetic differences among individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does pruning in brain development refer to?

    <p>Pruning refers to the process of eliminating unnecessary or weak neural connections to strengthen remaining pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sickle-cell disease is rarer in regions where malaria is common.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean for growth to be 'experience-expectant'?

    <p>Experience-expectant growth depends on typical human experiences for normal brain development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does stress affect early childhood development?

    <p>Chronic stress can impair cognitive development, emotional regulation, and social skills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Developmental Science

    • Studies how and why people change over time.
    • Uses research and data-based conclusions to understand human development.
    • Five steps of the scientific method:
      • Pose a question
      • Develop a hypothesis
      • Test the hypothesis
      • Draw conclusions
      • Report the results
      • Repeat the study
    • Nature vs. Nurture
      • Current view recognizes the interconnectedness of nature and nurture.
      • Genes and experiences influence development.
      • Genetics studies the genes that control bodily functions.
      • Epigenetics studies inheritable changes in gene expression due to environmental factors.
      • Differential Susceptibility: Individuals respond differently to experiences based on their genes.
    • Continuity vs. Discontinuity
      • Continuity suggests that development occurs gradually and consistently over time.
      • Discontinuity suggests that development occurs in distinct stages with significant changes.
      • Critical Period: Specific time frame when development must occur for normal development (e.g., language acquisition in childhood).
      • Sensitive Period: Time frame where development is more easily achieved but not strictly limited.
    • Social Contexts of Development
      • Culture: Shared customs, values, and beliefs that influence development.
      • Historical Context: Events and trends that shape development.
      • Socioeconomic Context: Resources and opportunities available to individuals.
      • Cohort: Group of people born around the same time.
      • Age Group: Individuals within a specified age range.
    • Plasticity in Development
      • Human traits can be molded and change throughout life.
      • Individuals maintain a sense of identity even with change.
    • Scientific Methods
      • Observations: Carefully watching and recording behaviors.
      • Experimental and Control Groups: Studying the effects of an intervention.
      • Survey Method: Collecting information using questionnaires.
      • Cross-Sectional Research: Comparing groups of different ages at one time.
      • Longitudinal Research: Studying the same individuals over time.
      • Cross-Sequential Research: Combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches.
      • Correlational Research: Examining relationships between variables.
      • Quantitative Research: Using numerical data.
      • Qualitative Research: Exploring experiences and meanings.
    • Institutional Review Boards (IRB)
      • Ethical oversight of research involving human subjects.
      • Ensure ethical and safe research practices.

    Theories of Development

    • Functions of Theories:
      • Generate hypotheses
      • Lead to new discoveries
      • Offer practical guidance
    • Grand Theories:
      • Psychosocial Theory (Erikson): Eight stages of psychosocial development throughout life.
      • Behaviorism: Learning through association and reinforcement (Pavlov, Skinner).
      • Cognitive Theories:
        • Piaget's Cognitive Development: Four stages of cognitive development.
        • Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Social interaction and culture contribute to cognitive development.
        • Information Processing: Focuses on mental processes involved in acquiring and using information.
    • Neuroscience and Development
      • Neuroscience contributes to understanding brain development and how it relates to various theories.
    • Modern Theories:
      • Sociocultural Theories: Emphasize the influence of culture and social context.
      • Evolutionary Theory: Development from an evolutionary perspective.
    • Eclectic Approach
      • Integrating multiple theories to gain a holistic understanding of development.
      • Acknowledges the complexity of human development.

    Biological Beginnings

    • Human Chromosomes and Genes
      • 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
      • Alleles: Variations of a gene.
      • Microbiome: The collective microbes and their genes that affect weight, immunity, and other functions.
    • Prenatal Development
      • Germinal Stage (first two weeks): Rapid cell division and implantation.
      • Embryonic Stage (three to eight weeks): Major body structures form.
      • Fetal Stage (nine weeks to birth): Growth and refinement of organs and systems.
    • Birth
      • First Stage: Dilation of the cervix.
      • Second Stage: Delivery of the baby.
      • Third Stage: Delivery of the placenta.
    • Newborn Reflexes
      • Maintaining Oxygen: Breathing, hiccupping, sneezing.
      • Maintaining Body Temperature: Crying, shivering, tucking legs.
      • Managing Feeding: Sucking, rooting, swallowing.
      • Other Reflexes: Babinski, stepping, palmar grasping, Moro.

    Early Childhood Development

    • Infant Growth
      • Rapid growth during the first year.
      • Weight doubles by four months.
      • Height increases by an inch per month in the first six months.
    • Brain Development
      • Neuron growth and synapse formation.
      • Pruning: Elimination of unnecessary connections.
    • Experience-Expectant vs. Experience-Dependent Brain Development
      • Experience-Expectant: Brain expects typical human experiences.
      • Experience-Dependent: Specific experiences shape the brain.
    • Stress and Social Deprivation
      • Chronic stress can negatively impact brain development.
      • Social deprivation impairs attachment, social skills, and emotional well-being.
    • Sensory and Motor Development
      • Sight: Improves from blurry vision to color perception in the first year.
      • Sound: Infants respond to sounds from birth and develop the ability to discriminate and localize sounds.
      • Taste: Infants are sensitive to taste and develop preferences.
      • Motor Skills: Progress from reflexes to coordinated movements.
    • Immunization
      • Low immunization rates increase the risk of outbreaks of preventable diseases.

    Breastfeeding Benefits

    • Breast milk provides a balanced mix of nutrients and antibodies for infants' growth and development.
    • Breast milk contains antibodies that boost infants' immune systems and lower the risk of diseases.
    • Breastfeeding has been linked to a lower risk of allergies and chronic conditions such as asthma and eczema.
    • Studies suggest breastfed infants have slightly higher cognitive scores than formula-fed infants.
    • Breastfeeding fosters close physical contact and bonding between mother and infant, crucial for emotional well-being.
    • The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months and continued breastfeeding with complementary foods for at least two years.

    Malnutrition and Disease

    • Malnutrition weakens the immune system, leaving children more vulnerable to various diseases.

    Infant Emotions

    • During the first year, infants express basic emotions like contentment, distress, and interest through facial expressions, vocalizations, and body language.
    • In the second year, infants develop a wider range of emotions, including happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise.
    • They start to understand and react to the emotions of others.
    • The difference between the first and second year is the growing complexity and awareness of emotions.
    • Emotions in the first year are primarily driven by physiological states and basic needs.
    • In the second year, emotions become more nuanced, influenced by social interactions and experiences, reflecting a deepening understanding of the world.

    Triggers for Anger and Sadness

    • Infants experience anger and sadness when their needs are frustrated or expectations are not met.
    • Hunger, changes in routine, restrictions from exploration, and interruptions during play can trigger anger.
    • Separation from caregivers, being ignored, discomfort, or pain can lead to sadness.
    • As infants mature, they learn to communicate their needs more effectively and develop coping mechanisms for handling these emotions.

    Common Fears in 1-Year-Olds

    • Fear of unfamiliar people, especially those who are not primary caregivers (stranger anxiety).
    • Fear of being separated from caregivers (separation anxiety).
    • Fear of loud and sudden noises (e.g., thunder or a vacuum cleaner).
    • Fear of falling, especially from heights.
    • Fear of being alone in unfamiliar environments.

    Temperament Enduring or Changing

    • Temperament traits tend to endure, with studies suggesting they are relatively stable over time.
    • However, temperament is not rigid and can be influenced by experiences and environmental factors.
    • Children develop coping mechanisms, and a highly reactive child can be taught strategies to manage emotions and regulate behavior.
    • While temperament provides a foundation for personality, it is not set in stone.

    Context's Influence on Temperament

    • A child's environment and experiences influence temperament.
    • Parent-child interaction shapes a child's behavior.
    • Cultural influences impact how parents raise children and expectations regarding behavior.
    • Social environment, including interactions with family, peers, and adults, fosters emotional and social development.
    • Experiences and opportunities, like access to music, art, or sports, affect the development of skills, emotional management, and adaptation to situations.
    • Temperament is a complex interplay of biological factors and environmental influences.

    Importance of Synchrony

    • Synchrony, the reciprocal and harmonious interaction between a caregiver and infant, is crucial for early emotional development due to its role in secure attachment.
    • Synchrony helps infants feel safe, secure, and loved, leading to secure attachment.
    • Sensitive and predictable responses to an infant's cues foster trust by assuring the infant that their needs will be met.
    • Synchrony teaches infants emotional regulation. Calm and comforting responses to distress help infants manage feelings and develop self-soothing strategies.
    • Synchrony fosters social and emotional skills. Learning to read and respond to a caregiver's emotions promotes empathy, communication, and social understanding.
    • A healthy caregiver-infant relationship based on synchrony lays the groundwork for emotional well-being and social competence, impacting development throughout life.

    Proximity-Seeking and Contact-Maintaining Attachment

    • This behavior is fundamental in infants during their first year.
    • Infants attempt to stay close to their primary caregiver, often by crawling or reaching towards them. They may cry when their caregiver leaves their sight or moves away.
    • Babies snuggle up to their caregiver and seek physical contact, especially when feeling scared, tired, or insecure.
    • Caregivers respond to these cues with physical comfort, holding the infant close, and providing reassurance through verbal cues (soft tones, singing) or soothing activities (rocking, patting).
    • This innate need for closeness and reassurance is a powerful instinct that helps infants feel safe and secure, fostering a strong bond between caregiver and child.

    Attachment Styles and Infant Behavior

    • Secure Attachment: Infants explore when their caregiver is present and are easily comforted when distressed. They experience mild distress upon separation and actively seek comfort upon reunion.
    • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infants appear independent and avoid their caregivers. They show little distress when separated and avoid contact upon reunion.
    • Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Infants are clingy and anxious even when their caregiver is present. They become very distressed upon separation and exhibit a mix of anger and clinginess upon reunion.
    • Disorganized Attachment: Infants demonstrate inconsistent and contradictory behaviors. They often appear confused or fearful of the caregiver.

    Goal of Ainsworth Strange Situation

    • The Ainsworth Strange Situation is a standardized experiment to observe and assess an infant's attachment style.
    • It aims to evaluate the quality of the attachment bond between the infant and their primary caregiver.
    • It assesses how an infant reacts to stress when their caregiver is absent or present.

    Attachment Types Throughout Development

    • Secure Attachment: Usually leads to positive self-esteem, a sense of trust in others, healthy relationships, and resilience.
    • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Difficulty forming close relationships, expressing emotions, and intimacy. May struggle with vulnerability.
    • Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Experience anxiety and insecurity in relationships. May be clingy and demanding of attention. May have trouble trusting others.
    • Disorganized Attachment: Unpredictable and confusing behaviors. Often struggle with emotional regulation. May face challenges forming stable and secure relationships.
    • These are general tendencies, and individuals may show a mix of styles. Experiences and support systems influence how attachment styles affect development.

    Importance of Social Referencing

    • Social referencing is crucial for toddlers as it helps them learn about the world and navigate social situations.
    • It provides guidance, allowing toddlers to seek information from trusted adults when encountering new or unfamiliar situations. They look to caregivers for cues.
    • Social referencing contributes to emotional regulation by teaching toddlers how to interpret their own emotions. They learn to react appropriately based on how their caregiver responds.
    • It promotes social development by observing and imitating a caregiver's social interactions, facilitating learning about social norms, expectations, and appropriate behavior.

    Agreement on Parental Care

    • Both Erikson's trust/mistrust stage and evolutionary theories emphasize the importance of consistent, responsive parental care in establishing secure attachment.
    • Erikson believed the first year of life is crucial for developing trust in the world and the caregiver. Consistent care, meeting needs, and providing a predictable and nurturing environment foster trust.
    • Evolutionary theories recognize that secure attachment is essential for infant survival and well-being. Consistent care and protection provided by a caregiver contribute to the infant's physical and emotional thriving.
    • Both theories agree that responsive parenting is vital for healthy development, building a strong foundation for future relationships and emotional well-being.

    Normative Growth Between Ages 2 and 6

    • Between ages 2 and 6, children experience steady growth, but at a slower pace than during infancy.
    • Children grow about 2.5 inches per year.
    • They gain about 5-7 pounds per year.
    • Growth is not uniform, and individual children vary.

    Reasons for Overfeeding Children

    • Well-meaning but misguided: Parents may believe they are providing necessary nutrients for growth and thriving.
    • Cultural norms: Some cultures value a child's weight and fullness as a sign of health and well-being.
    • Emotional connection: Food can be a source of comfort and love. Some parents use food to bond with their children.
    • Lack of awareness: Parents may not be aware of appropriate serving sizes or the amount of calories their children need.

    Risk Factors for Childhood Obesity

    • Dietary changes: Easier access to processed foods, sugary drinks, and fast food. Increased portion sizes lead to overconsumption of calories.
    • Lack of physical activity: Children spend more time indoors engaged in sedentary activities, resulting in decreased physical activity.
    • Genetic predisposition: Genetics can contribute to weight gain in some children.
    • Socioeconomic factors: Access to healthy food and recreational opportunities can vary based on socioeconomic status.

    Brain Growth Between Ages 2 and 6

    • Between ages 2 and 6, the brain undergoes significant growth, but not as rapidly as during infancy.
    • Myelination: The process of myelin coating nerve fibers increases, speeding up signal transmission within the brain.
    • Synaptic pruning: Unused connections between neurons are pruned away, making the brain more efficient and specialized.
    • Growth in specific areas: The prefrontal cortex, responsible for higher-order thinking, planning, and impulse control, undergoes significant development.

    Importance of Myelination

    • Myelination is essential for improved thinking and motor skills.
    • It allows nerve impulses to travel more quickly, leading to faster processing, efficient thinking, and enhanced cognitive abilities.
    • It contributes to smoother, more coordinated movements, precise muscle control, and improved fine motor skills like handwriting and drawing.
    • Myelination improves memory and learning by enabling faster and more efficient signal transmission in brain areas related to these functions.

    Factors Affecting Motor Skill Development

    • Maturation: Biological development of the brain and nervous system.
    • Experience: Practice and opportunities to use their bodies.
    • Environment: A stimulating environment that encourages physical activity and offers opportunities for exploration and play.

    Inferences From Childhood Injury Data

    • Injury types and causes can highlight risk factors like age, gender, and socioeconomic status.
    • The data suggests that many injuries are preventable, indicating that interventions such as safety education, product regulations, and environmental modifications can reduce these occurrences.
    • Injury rates can vary across locations and communities, reflecting differences in access to healthcare, safety resources, and environmental hazards.
    • Childhood injuries can have long-term consequences for physical and cognitive development, especially if severe or recurring.

    Recognizing Childhood Maltreatment

    • Lack of recognition 50 years ago was due to factors like:
      • Social stigma: Maltreatment was often viewed as a private family matter, with families reluctant to report due to shame or fear of judgment.
      • Lack of resources: Fewer dedicated resources such as hotlines, shelters, and support organizations.
      • Limited research: Limited understanding of child abuse and neglect's long-term consequences.
      • Cultural beliefs: Physical discipline was considered acceptable in some cultures, blurring the line between appropriate and abusive parenting practices.
    • Increased recognition and reporting have led to the establishment of more comprehensive support systems.

    Harm of Childhood Neglect

    • Consistent lack of basic needs: Food, shelter, clothing, medical care, and emotional support. This chronic deprivation has profound and lasting effects on development.
    • Impact on brain development: Negative impact on brain areas related to attachment, social-emotional regulation, and cognitive functioning.
    • Psychological effects: Can lead to attachment disorders, anxiety, depression, and difficulties forming healthy relationships.
    • Impact on physical health: Issues caused by malnutrition, lack of hygiene, and delayed medical treatment.
    • While physical abuse is traumatic, neglect creates a chronic environment of stress and instability, impacting development significantly.

    Difficulty in Determining Maltreatment Frequency

    • Underreporting: Cases go unreported due to fear, shame, social stigma, or lack of trust in authorities. Children may be unable to report or understand the situation fully.
    • Defining maltreatment: No universal definition; what constitutes abuse or neglect can vary across cultures.
    • Data collection methods: Different methods (surveys, interviews, reports to child protective services) have varying levels of accuracy and reliability.
    • Hidden cases: Cases may remain hidden within families or communities.

    Long-Term Consequences of Maltreatment

    • Mental health: Higher rates of anxiety, depression, PTSD, personality disorders, and substance abuse.
    • Physical health: Increased risk of chronic health problems, including cardiovascular disease, obesity, and autoimmune disorders.
    • Cognitive function: Difficulty with learning, attention, memory, and executive functioning skills.
    • Social and emotional development: Challenges in forming healthy relationships, trust, and intimacy, difficulties with self-regulation and empathy, and behavioral problems.
    • Intergenerational cycle: Increased risk of perpetuating abuse or neglect in their own relationships as adults.

    Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage

    • Piaget called the first stage of cognition sensorimotor intelligence because infants primarily learn through their senses and physical actions.

    Preoperational Thinking

    • Children begin to use symbols to represent objects and ideas, which enables them to think about things that are not physically present.
    • Children have difficulty understanding that other people may see the world differently (egocentrism).
    • Children may attribute human qualities to inanimate objects (animism).
    • Children tend to focus on a single aspect of a situation at a time (centration).
    • Children struggle to understand that the amount of something stays the same even if its appearance changes (lack of conservation).

    Information Processing Theories

    • Information enters the system through the senses (input).
    • Information is transformed into a format that the brain can understand (encoding).
    • Information is stored in memory (storage).
    • Stored information is accessed and used (retrieval).
    • Processed information leads to a response (output).
    • Attention is the ability to focus on important information.
    • Working memory is a temporary system that actively holds information for current tasks.
    • Long-term memory is a permanent storage system that holds knowledge and experiences.
    • Executive functions are higher-level processes that regulate behavior, including planning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

    Object Permanence

    • Object permanence is the understanding that objects still exist even when out of sight.
    • It develops during infancy.
    • It allows babies to predict where objects will be, find them, and solve problems.
    • It forms the basis for mental representation.
    • It contributes to secure attachment by affirming that caregivers are still present even if out of sight.
    • It supports language development by associating words with specific objects.

    Critiques of Piaget

    • Critics argue that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young children.
    • They suggest development may be more continuous and gradual, not in distinct stages.
    • Piaget’s methods (observational and interview-based) may have underestimated children's abilities due to limitations in communication.
    • Some argue his theory may be biased toward Western cultural norms.
    • Limited attention to social influence in his theory.

    Depth Perception and Visual Cliffs

    • Ten-month-old babies typically refuse to crawl over visual cliffs because they have developed depth perception.
    • The "visual cliff" experiment demonstrates this by creating an illusion of a drop-off.
    • Most babies at this age hesitate or refuse to crawl over the visual cliff, indicating their understanding of depth and avoiding potential danger.

    Memory Development in Infancy and Early Childhood

    • Memory capacity and efficiency increase with age.
    • Early memory is largely implicit (unconscious), relying on sensory and motor skills.
    • Explicit memory (conscious, intentional recall) develops as children grow older.
    • As children develop, they learn memory strategies like repetition, chunking, and organization.
    • Language development greatly enhances memory.

    Language Development

    • Pre-Linguistic Stage (Birth-12 Months)
      • Cooing and babbling occur as infants experiment with vocalization.
      • Infants understand some words, especially those associated with routines.
      • Infants use gestures to communicate.
    • First Words (12-18 Months)
      • Infants start using single words.
      • One word can represent a complete sentence (holophrases).
      • Children may overextend the meaning of words.
    • Two-Word Phrases (18-24 Months)
      • Children combine two words to express simple ideas (telegraphic speech).
      • Basic grammar starts to emerge.
      • Children understand more language.
    • Early Childhood (2-5 Years)
      • More complex sentences with subjects, verbs, and objects are used.
      • Vocabulary grows rapidly.
      • Children learn the rules of grammar (syntax) and word structure (morphology).
      • Children adapt their language based on social situations.
      • Conversational and nonverbal communication skills improve.

    Egocentrism vs. Selfishness

    • Egocentrism: A cognitive limitation, difficulty understanding different perspectives. It is a result of brain development, not malicious intent.
    • Selfishness: A choice to prioritize personal needs over others' needs. It involves awareness of others' needs, but a preference for self-interest.

    Vygotsky's Theory of Private Speech

    • Vygotsky believed private speech (talking to oneself) is essential for cognitive development.
    • It helps children guide their actions and thinking.
    • As children develop, this outward speech becomes internalized.
    • It helps children control impulses and focus attention.
    • It's most effective within the "zone of proximal development."

    Advantages of Bilingualism

    • Learning two or more languages can enhance cognitive skills, memory, and brain plasticity.

    Advantages of Preschool

    • Preschool promotes social-emotional development, encourages interaction with peers, and builds social skills.
    • It stimulates cognitive development, expands vocabulary, and develops early literacy skills.
    • It provides opportunities for language acquisition and literacy development.
    • It helps develop foundational math skills.
    • It prepares children for kindergarten.
    • Studies show that children who attend preschool tend to perform better academically in later years.

    Head Start

    • Head Start aims to provide preschool children with the knowledge, skills, and experiences needed for success in kindergarten and beyond.
    • Children in Head Start typically perform better academically in elementary school.

    Emotional Development in Early Childhood

    • Emotion regulation is crucial for healthy social and emotional development.
    • Children who effectively regulate emotions build stronger relationships, better cope with stress, and focus on learning.
    • Factors influencing emotion regulation include temperament, parent-child relationships, and social interactions.

    Effortful Control

    • Effortful control is the ability to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, especially when challenged.
    • It is defined by:
      • Control over attention
      • Delaying gratification
      • Regulating emotions
      • Inhibiting behavior

    Changes in Attachment and Parental Roles in Early Childhood

    • Attachment:
      • Shift in focus from primary caregiver dependence to exploring the world and forming relationships with peers.
      • Development of self-regulation abilities.
      • Children rely on social cues from adults for guidance.
      • Parent-child relationship becomes more reciprocal.
    • Parental Roles:
      • Maintain secure attachment by providing warmth, responsiveness, and emotional support.
      • Facilitate exploration and building relationships with peers.
      • Promote independence and problem-solving skills.
      • Encourage socialization and model appropriate social behavior.

    Authoritative Parenting

    • This parenting style is characterized by warmth, responsiveness, clear expectations, and appropriate discipline.
    • Baumrind's research suggests it leads to the happiest and most successful children.

    Limitations of Baumrind's Theory

    • Oversimplification of complex parenting dynamics.
    • Cultural bias.
    • Lack of attention to individual differences.
    • Ignores the role of social, economic, and cultural contexts.
    • Limited focus on long-term outcomes.

    Cultural Influences on Parenting

    • Cultural factors affect parental control, family structure, caregiving practices, values, and health practices.

    Corporal Punishment

    • Corporal punishment involves physical discipline, such as hitting or spanking.
    • It can have negative consequences for children's development and well-being.
    • It may lead to aggression, mental health issues, and a negative impact on parent-child relationships.

    Induction

    • Induction involves explaining the consequences of a child's actions and why the behavior is wrong.
    • Advantages:
      • Promotes understanding.
      • Teaches empathy.
      • Builds responsibility.
      • Strengthens parent-child relationships.
    • Challenges:
      • Requires patience and effort.

    Parenting Strategies

    • Induction is an effective parenting strategy, encouraging children to reflect on their actions and understand the impact of their behavior
    • Patience and clear explanations are key
    • Induction is not effective for young children
    • Induction can be difficult in heightened emotional situations

    Screen Time

    • Excessive screen time can negatively impact development in areas such as language, social skills, and physical activity
    • Screen time can disrupt sleep patterns due to the blue light emitted from devices
    • Constant screen stimulation can impair focus and concentration
    • Screen time can contribute to a sedentary lifestyle and increased risk of obesity, heart disease, and other health problems
    • Screen time can limit real-world social interaction and affect relationship building

    Learning from Screens

    • Screens can be used for education
    • Screens offer entertainment and communication through online connections
    • Some online content can negatively affect children's behaviors

    Empathy and Antipathy

    • Children develop empathy through observing facial expressions, body language, and verbal cues
    • Role-playing in games helps children understand different perspectives
    • Sharing, taking turns, and working together in play enhances empathy
    • Competition in games can lead to frustration and jealousy
    • Disagreements during play can create feelings of antipathy
    • Judgments of fairness and social comparisons can lead to feelings of inadequacy or resentment

    Empathy and Prosocial Behavior

    • Empathy fuels prosocial behavior
    • Prosocial behavior strengthens empathy

    Childhood Health Habits

    • Childhood health habits influence lifelong health patterns
    • Healthy eating and physical activity during childhood reduce the risk of obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and other chronic conditions
    • Exercise promotes bone and muscle development, reducing the risk of future health problems
    • Adequate sleep and stress management techniques learned in childhood are essential for mental health and cognitive function

    Risks of Obesity

    • Obesity increases the risk of type 2 diabetes leading to complications like heart disease, kidney failure, and nerve damage
    • Obesity increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and heart attacks
    • Obesity can lead to sleep apnea
    • Excess weight puts stress on joints increasing the risk of arthritis
    • Obesity has been linked to some types of cancer
    • Obesity is linked to low self-esteem and depression

    Traditional IQ Tests

    • IQ tests measure cognitive abilities such as: verbal abilities, nonverbal reasoning , working memory and processing speed
    • IQ tests provide a standardized score for comparison across age groups
    • IQ tests are useful in identifying academic challenges, giftedness, and cognitive impairments
    • IQ tests only measure a portion of intelligence
    • IQ tests do not measure creativity, emotional intelligence, or practical skills
    • IQ scores may be correlated with academic achievement but do not guarantee success in life
    • Traditional IQ tests are criticized for being culturally biased

    The Flynn Effect

    • The Flynn effect describes the increase in average IQ scores over generations
    • Possible explanations include: improved nutrition & healthcare, increased educational opportunities, exposure to complex information, evolution of test design, and potentially genetic factors
    • The Flynn effect has slowed or reversed in recent years in some countries, suggesting environmental influences, societal changes, and potential biases in testing may contribute to the trends

    Brain Scans and Intelligence

    • Brain scans can reveal valuable information about brain function and structure
    • Brain scans are not a direct replacement for traditional IQ tests due to different measures
    • Complex interpretation of brain scan data remains a barrier to utilizing them as a primary tool for assessing intelligence
    • Brain activity and structure vary significantly across individuals
    • Lack of standards for using brain scans to measure intelligence makes it difficult to compare results

    Cognitive Development - Concrete Operational Stage

    • Piaget labeled the middle childhood stage of cognitive development as the "concrete operational stage" because children at this age:
    • Understand concrete objects and events and can apply logic to real-world scenarios
    • Have difficulty thinking about abstract concepts and hypotheticals
    • Understand concepts like conservation and reversibility

    Social Comparison in Middle Childhood

    • Social comparison becomes more prominent in middle childhood due to increased self-awareness and understanding of social standings
    • Social comparison is important for social development, navigating social situations, and understanding group dynamics
    • Social comparison plays a role in identity formation, helping children define values and aspirations
    • Social comparison can motivate children to improve but also lead to unhealthy competition and stress

    Resilience in Children

    • Secure attachments with caregivers provide a sense of safety and support for children, enhancing their resilience
    • A positive self-concept allows children to view challenges as opportunities for growth
    • Problem-solving skills help children identify, address, and overcome difficulties
    • Children who can manage their emotions effectively are better equipped to cope with stress
    • Strong social skills foster supportive relationships and a sense of belonging
    • An optimistic outlook helps children view challenges as temporary setbacks

    Family and Siblings in Middle Childhood

    • Families continue to provide a secure base for children during middle childhood
    • Families shape a child's values, beliefs, and perspectives on the world
    • Children learn valuable communication, cooperation, problem-solving, and conflict resolution skills through family interactions
    • Family members serve as positive role models
    • Sibling relationships offer opportunities for developing social skills, sharing, cooperation, and managing conflict
    • Shared traditions and rituals strengthen family bonds and create a sense of identity

    Language Development in Middle Childhood

    • Vocabulary expands significantly, incorporating more complex words, figurative language, and multiple word meanings
    • Children develop a deeper understanding of grammar and become more proficient in using correct tenses, structure, and punctuation
    • Reading and writing skills become more fluent and complex
    • Communication skills become more sophisticated: understanding social cues, sarcasm, humor, and actively participating in conversations
    • School provides a structured environment for language acquisition through reading aloud, writing activities, and discussion-based learning

    Working Memory in Middle Childhood

    • Working memory capacity increases, allowing children to hold more information and process it more efficiently
    • Working memory skills improve manipulation of information
    • Working memory is crucial for reading comprehension, problem-solving, learning new information, and following directions
    • Schoolwork helps strengthen working memory through activities such as remembering instructions, solving multi-step math problems, and following scientific procedures
    • Social interaction in school provides a framework for communication skills development, including social norms of language use

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    Psych of Human Development Midterm Study Guide PDF

    Description

    Explore the various aspects of child development, focusing on the role of family dynamics, emotional skills, and language growth during middle childhood. This quiz delves into the interactions between children and their parents and siblings, highlighting their contributions to moral and social development.

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