Chapter 6 and 7

Questions and Answers

When children generally avoid making the A-not-B error, they .

show the ability to categorise

have attained object permanence (correct)

understand scaffolding

use tertiary circular reactions

According to Vygotsky, is required for cognitive development.

social interaction (correct)

formal education

strong parent–child attachment

emotional self-regulation

When it comes to learning language, the most significant difference between apes and humans is .

apes’ inability to learn more than a few signs

the faster pace of humans’ sign language

apes’ inability to generate word symbols in an infinite number of ways (correct)

apes’ inability to make requests

Which is an example of overextension?

A child calling all dogs ‘Spot.’ Signup and view all the answers

Research on language development has shown that .

social class status is correlated with how much parents speak to their young children Signup and view all the answers

Which emotion does NOT appear until toddlerhood?

Pride Signup and view all the answers

The capacity of toddlers to think about themselves as they would about other people and objects is called .

self-reflection Signup and view all the answers

When children can identify themselves and others as either male or female, they have developed .

gender identity Signup and view all the answers

When Sophie was placed in the Strange Situation, she used her mother as a secure base to explore and became upset when her mum left the room. When they were reunited Sophie smiled and was happy. Sophie would be classified as having .

secure attachment Signup and view all the answers

Research has shown that a child with a(n) attachment is most likely to have later problems such as hostility, psychopathology and cognitive deficits.

disorganised–disoriented Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes attachment across cultures?

In all cultures, infants and toddlers develop attachments to the people around them who provide loving, protective care. Signup and view all the answers

In developed countries, fathers would most likely be observed in which of the following activities with their infants or toddlers?

Playing Signup and view all the answers

During toddlerhood, .

friendships are based on companionship, mutual affection and emotional closeness Signup and view all the answers

Which behaviour would be most characteristic of a child who has been diagnosed with autism?

Avoiding eye contact Signup and view all the answers

Research on media has shown that .

television can inspire prosocial play among toddlers Signup and view all the answers

During early childhood, .

most children become more like adults in terms of their body proportions Signup and view all the answers

Your cousin has a 5-year-old son and a 3-year-old daughter. He has been taking them to story time at the library, but his daughter is having a very difficult time sitting still, even for 10 minutes. His son is able to sit through the entire story time because his is more fully developed than his sister’s.

reticular formation Signup and view all the answers

Limited autobiographical memory prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the .

hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

Walter is a 5-year-old boy who lives in New Zealand. Based on the research, if he has a nutritional problem it is most likely to be .

calcium deficiency Signup and view all the answers

Accidental injury among young children .

happens at a greater rate in developed countries than in developing countries Signup and view all the answers

In early childhood (from age 3 to 6), .

gender differences in gross motor development appear Signup and view all the answers

Imagine that you have just walked into a classroom during art time and all the children in this particular class are 5 years old. What would you most likely see?

Most of the children drawing something that is recognisable, such as a person or an animal. Signup and view all the answers

A child who is left-handed .

will be more likely to learn to be right-handed in an Asian or African culture than in Australia Signup and view all the answers

A preference for using one hand rather than the other (‘handedness’) can be seen as early as .

the prenatal period Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding handedness?

A premature birth is more common among left-handed infants. Signup and view all the answers

In Piagetian theory, which of the following is the term to describe when a child’s focus is on only one characteristic of a cognitive problem?

Centration Signup and view all the answers

Five-year-old Marco draws a picture of a sun with a smiley face and sunglasses. This is an example of .

animism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding theory of mind?

It is measured with false-belief tasks. Signup and view all the answers

According to your text, what is one of the factors that make cultural learning in developed countries different from cultural learning in traditional cultures?

Children in developed countries are often apart from their families for a substantial part of the day, so they do not have as much guided participation in daily activities within the family as children in traditional cultures do. Signup and view all the answers

Learning to set the table in a developed country, such as New Zealand, or to help prepare food in a non-traditional culture, such as Botswana, are examples of cultural learning. According to Vygotsky, these skills .

develop as part of a social process Signup and view all the answers

While learning language, children who learn English and other Western languages have been shown to fast map first.

nouns Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE?

Children learning English fast map nouns earlier than verbs. Signup and view all the answers

In Berko’s (1958) classic experiment, she showed young children a picture of a figure called a ‘wug’ and then showed them two of these figures. She then asked them to respond to the following statement: ‘Now there are two ’. Berko was measuring children’s understanding of what?

grammar Signup and view all the answers

Four-year-old Nicco uses infant-directed speech when talking to his neighbour’s new baby. This demonstrates .

pragmatics Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding emotional regulation?

Temper tantrums and crying decrease from age 2 to 6. Signup and view all the answers

In early childhood, .

moral judgments tend to be based more on fear of punishment than is the case for older children Signup and view all the answers

Gender identity .

refers to the ability of children to identify themselves as male or female Signup and view all the answers

The way we organise and process information in terms of gender-based categories is referred to as .

gender schemas Signup and view all the answers

Chris realised that even though the teacher dressed up like Michael Jackson for Halloween, she is still a female. Based on this information, one would expect that Chris .

uses gender schemas, but does not yet understand gender constancy Signup and view all the answers

As a parent of a 3-year-old, you have visited several preschool programs to determine the one that will provide the highest-quality experience. Which of the following should NOT be heavily weighted in your decision about which preschool to choose?

Whether the teachers make good use of time by providing worksheets and flashcards to practise numbers and letters Signup and view all the answers

For the Japanese, .

preschool is mainly a time for children to learn social skills and gain experience of being a member of a group Signup and view all the answers

There is a broad consensus among early childhood scholars that preschool teaching should be based on .

unstructured, hands-on experiences Signup and view all the answers

Te Whāriki, the early childhood curriculum of New Zealand, incorporates all of the following EXCEPT:

learning in English only Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristics of quality child care and preschool settings were associated with better literacy and numeracy skills and more prosocial and fewer problem behaviours?

Smaller teacher-to-student ratios and more teacher-led activities Signup and view all the answers

Research on parenting has found that .

there are bidirectional effects between parents and their children Signup and view all the answers

If parents listen receptively to opinions from their children, their parenting style is considered to be .

authoritative Signup and view all the answers

The dimension of parenting known as responsiveness is also known as .

warmth Signup and view all the answers

The use of shame as a punishment .

is referred to as psychological control among American researchers Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the most accurate statement based on existing research?

Western parents tend to use a lot of praise for compliant behaviour. Signup and view all the answers

Lucien is still cared for mainly by his mother, who just recently stopped breastfeeding. He also spends a lot of time with his older siblings and the older children who live nearby. When he is distressed, the older children comfort him if the mother is not in the vicinity. Using Mead’s classification, Lucien would be considered a .

knee child Signup and view all the answers

Hyejin is an only child from China. Which of the following is most likely TRUE?

She has higher cognitive development than her counterparts with siblings. Signup and view all the answers

Based on the research, which of the following is most likely TRUE of Sebastian, a 4-year-old American male?

He engages in rough-and-tumble play at recess when he is around other boys of the same age. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following would you most likely see 5-year-olds doing in a playground in a Western culture?

Boys playing a game to see who could throw a ball the furthest Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding media use in early childhood?

Children are able to connect musical sounds with specific emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the physical changes that take place during early childhood?

Both boys and girls gain more in weight than in height, but most add more muscle than fat. Signup and view all the answers

The limited memory for personal events and experiences prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the .

hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

The two most common types of nutritional deficiencies in developing countries are a lack of protein and .

iron Signup and view all the answers

How does motor development change between ages 3 and 6?

Fine motor skill development allows children to become more independent by doing things such as putting on a coat and using a knife to cut soft food. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about handedness is most accurate?

The prevalence of left-handedness in some African countries is as low as 1% because using the left hand is suppressed. Signup and view all the answers

A 5-year-old child draws a yellow sun in the upper corner of her paper complete with a smiley face and sunglasses. This is an example of .

animism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding theory of mind?

It begins to develop, in rudimentary form, sometime in infancy. Signup and view all the answers

Cultural learning skills, such as learning to set the table in a developed country or to help prepare food in a traditional culture, .

develop as part of a social and cultural process, according to Vygotsky Signup and view all the answers

Young children’s use of grammar .

develops simply by hearing and using the language in daily interactions Signup and view all the answers

A 4-year-old using infant-directed speech when talking to her neighbour’s new baby demonstrates .

pragmatics Signup and view all the answers

A key reason emotional outbursts decline in early childhood is that children .

learn strategies for regulating their emotions, in a practice known as effortful control Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes moral development in early childhood?

Perspective taking and being able to understand how others think and feel make children more empathic at this age. Signup and view all the answers

The process by which people seek to maintain consistency between their gender schemas and their behaviour is referred to as .

self-socialisation Signup and view all the answers

As a parent of a 3-year-old, you have visited several preschool programs to determine the one that will provide the highest-quality experience. Which of the following should be important in your decision about which preschool to pick, according to research?

Children have unstructured time with hands-on experiences Signup and view all the answers

In Japan, .

preschool is mainly a time for learning social skills Signup and view all the answers

Research on parenting has found that .

there are bidirectional effects between parents and their children Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the most accurate statement based on existing research?

The American model of parenting does not apply well to most other cultures. Signup and view all the answers

The use of shame as a form of discipline .

is referred to as psychological control by American researchers Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding siblings?

Jealousy is a common response to the birth of a younger sibling across cultures. Signup and view all the answers

If you were a researcher observing play among 5-year-old children in New Zealand, what would you be most likely to observe?

Boys engaging in cooperative fantasy play Signup and view all the answers

Screen time during young childhood .

is concerning when it displaces other activities Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood .

girls and boys are more likely to be slim than at any other time Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood, sharply increases.

myopia Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood, there is an increase in myelination of the that accelerates the reaction time for both boys and girls.

corpus callosum Signup and view all the answers

For 6-year-old Emmanuel, which of the following fine motor tasks is developmentally appropriate?

Writing the letters of the alphabet, writing his name and writing numbers from 1 to 10 Signup and view all the answers

By the time Shawna has reached the end of middle childhood, what abilities are close to adult maturity?

Fine motor abilities Signup and view all the answers

What is the current understanding of how genetics influences obesity?

Genetics cannot explain recent rises in obesity rates; rather, it provides only a risk for overweight and obesity. Signup and view all the answers

Rates of childhood obesity .

vary among ethnic groups in New Zealand Signup and view all the answers

Your neighbours eat out quite a bit, and most of it is fast food. Their 8-year-old daughter is obese with a BMI of 24. Which of the following statements is most accurate?

They should be concerned because she is at heightened risk for kidney failure and blindness Signup and view all the answers

In developed countries, .

even children who do not receive vaccinations are less susceptible to fatal diseases in middle childhood than they were earlier in their development Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a trigger for an asthma attack?

Takeaway food Signup and view all the answers

Maurice is 8 years old and is shown two round balls of clay that are equal in size. He watches as the experimenter rolls one ball into a long sausage shape. When asked, ‘Which has more clay?’, he will likely reply:

‘They’re both the same.’ Signup and view all the answers

Marina is 9 years old and is capable of concrete operational thought. Like most other children her age, she should .

be able to organise and manipulate information mentally Signup and view all the answers

ADHD is usually treated with .

methylphenidate Signup and view all the answers

Selective attention

refers to focusing on the relevant stimuli, while ignoring what is irrelevant Signup and view all the answers

Both Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of intelligence propose .

that there are multiple components of intelligence Signup and view all the answers

Compared to her brother in Year 1, Fari, a 9-year-old in Year 4, will be MORE likely to .

realise that what people say is not always what they mean Signup and view all the answers

After his brother accidentally put the cereal in the refrigerator, Carl heard his father say, ‘Well, that was smart.’ Carl understood that his father was not giving his brother a compliment and it did not mean that his brother was especially intelligent. This is an example of increased understanding of .

pragmatics Signup and view all the answers

Children who are bilingual .

take longer to master the second language when they learn it after already becoming fluent in the first language Signup and view all the answers

In New Zealand, the most common language spoken is .

English Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the history of education in New Zealand?

Prior to 1877, school was not compulsory or free. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is one of several features of Asian schools that reflect collectivistic cultural beliefs?

Children are required to help maintain the cleanliness and order of the school. Signup and view all the answers

Indigenous Australian and Māori students reported that from their perspective, this one thing would contribute to improved academic achievement.

Closer and more authentic relationships with teachers. Signup and view all the answers

Josie is having difficulty in understanding numbers and learning basic arithmetic facts. Josie is likely to have

dyscalculia Signup and view all the answers

Kara is a primary school teacher and has a number of posters on her wall to help her students read. The poster that reads ‘an says can’ is most likely to be which reading approach?

Phonics Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood, .

children are aware that they can experience two contradictory emotions at once Signup and view all the answers

Dr Marinello is using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) method for her research. She is most likely measuring .

emotions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements reflects the self-concept of a child who is 7 years old?

My name is Maisie and I have two brothers and brown hair. Signup and view all the answers

When compared to her 6-year-old sister, Isabelle, who is in Year 8, is more likely to describe herself in terms of characteristics.

psychological Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood, .

both boys and girls come to see occupations they associate with men as having higher status than occupations they associate with women Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates co-regulation?

A child makes her bed without being asked because she knows that her parents expect the house to stay clean. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about families is TRUE?

Most children of gay and lesbian couples are heterosexual. Signup and view all the answers

In middle childhood, becomes the main reason for children ending friendships.

violating trust Signup and view all the answers

Around the world, child labour .

has been declining as a result of greater attention to the problem of exploitation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is NOT a concern expressed by parents when their child excessively uses screens?

My child is doing well at school because of screen time. Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes sensory changes during middle childhood?

The incidence of myopia increases. Signup and view all the answers

Rates of overweight and obesity .

are rising worldwide Signup and view all the answers

In developed countries, .

rates of lead poisoning in children have fallen over the past several decades Signup and view all the answers

In middle childhood, .

netball is the most popular sport for girls aged between 9 and 11 Signup and view all the answers

By the end of middle childhood, .

fine motor development has nearly reached adult maturity Signup and view all the answers

When capable of concrete operational thought, children .

can organise and manipulate information mentally Signup and view all the answers

In Australia, children are diagnosed with ADHD initially by a .

GP Signup and view all the answers

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V) .

is the most widely used intelligence test for children Signup and view all the answers

Research on reading and maths skills has .

found that even some non-human animals have a primitive awareness of numeracy Signup and view all the answers

Compared to younger children, those in middle childhood .

are more likely to realise that what people say is not always what they mean Signup and view all the answers

Compared to single-language children, those who are bilingual .

have better metalinguistic skills Signup and view all the answers

Asian schoolchildren .

work in groups and help teach one another difficult concepts Signup and view all the answers

During middle childhood, .

children learn how to conceal their emotions and show socially acceptable emotions Signup and view all the answers

A 9-year-old boy from a collectivistic culture, such as Japan, would be most likely to describe himself as .

a son Signup and view all the answers

In terms of gender development, during middle childhood, .

gender roles become less rigid than earlier in life Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best illustrates co-regulation?

A child is able to prepare himself breakfast, provided that he follows his parents’ rules and does not use the stove Signup and view all the answers

Sam is neither popular nor actively disliked by his classmates. In fact, the other students often forget that he is there. Sam is most likely to be a child.

neglected Signup and view all the answers

Child labour .

has declined worldwide in the past decade Signup and view all the answers

Watching violent television in middle childhood has been .

associated with a number of negative outcomes later in development Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Cognitive Development

Children typically avoid the A-not-B error when they possess object permanence.
Vygotsky emphasized the necessity of social interaction for cognitive development.
Significant distinction in language learning between humans and apes relates to the use of symbols and syntax.

Language Development

Overextension occurs when a child applies a word too broadly, like calling all four-legged animals "dogs."
Language development research indicates that children rapidly learn new words through fast mapping.
Mild cognitive challenges affect social and emotional milestones, such as identity recognition.

Emotional Development

Emotion such as shame generally does not appear until toddlerhood.
Self-awareness in toddlers is characterized by an understanding of themselves as separate entities from others.
Children identify gender as either male or female by ages 2-3, indicating early development of gender identity.

Attachment Style

Sophie, who explores using her mother as a secure base, demonstrates a secure attachment style.
Insecure attachment styles heighten risk for future issues like aggression and cognitive deficits.

Cultural Differences in Parenting

Across cultures, attachment experiences can differ; in developed societies, fathers often engage in play and nurturing with their children.
Preschool settings should prioritize interactive and child-centered teaching methodologies.

Early Childhood Behavior

Characteristics of autism include difficulties with social communication and repetitive behaviors.
Limited autobiographical memory prior to age 5 may result from incomplete brain myelination.
Children typically show preferences for a dominant hand early, around age 2.

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

Piaget described the focus on a single characteristic of a problem as centration.
Creative expressions, such as drawing a sun, reflect imaginative and symbolic thought in early childhood.

Cultural Learning and Development

Vygotsky noted that skills like setting the table express cultural learning influenced by context.
Children’s grammar use illustrates their ability to understand and apply language rules.

Emotional Regulation

Emotional outbursts tend to decline in early childhood as self-regulation skills improve.
Cultural teachings, such as gender roles, influence children's understanding and behavior.

Nutrition and Health

Common nutritional deficiencies in developing nations are protein and micronutrients.
In early childhood, obesity rates can be affected by dietary habits and environmental factors.

Middle Childhood Development

Increased myelination during middle childhood improves reaction times and cognitive performance.
Developmentally appropriate tasks for children, such as fine motor skills, advance rapidly during these years.

Academic Performance

Understanding of complex moral concepts evolves significantly during early childhood.
Bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility and cultural awareness in children.

Educational Approaches

Early primary education focuses on phonetics as foundational for reading skills.
Differences in educational philosophies exist, reflecting cultural beliefs regarding collectivism and individualism.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Chapter 6 and 7

Questions and Answers

When children generally avoid making the A-not-B error, they .

According to Vygotsky, is required for cognitive development.

When it comes to learning language, the most significant difference between apes and humans is .

Which is an example of overextension?

Research on language development has shown that .

Which emotion does NOT appear until toddlerhood?

The capacity of toddlers to think about themselves as they would about other people and objects is called .

When children can identify themselves and others as either male or female, they have developed .

When Sophie was placed in the Strange Situation, she used her mother as a secure base to explore and became upset when her mum left the room. When they were reunited Sophie smiled and was happy. Sophie would be classified as having .

Research has shown that a child with a(n) attachment is most likely to have later problems such as hostility, psychopathology and cognitive deficits.

Which of the following best describes attachment across cultures?

In developed countries, fathers would most likely be observed in which of the following activities with their infants or toddlers?

During toddlerhood, .

Which behaviour would be most characteristic of a child who has been diagnosed with autism?

Research on media has shown that .

During early childhood, .

Limited autobiographical memory prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the .

Walter is a 5-year-old boy who lives in New Zealand. Based on the research, if he has a nutritional problem it is most likely to be .

Accidental injury among young children .

In early childhood (from age 3 to 6), .

Imagine that you have just walked into a classroom during art time and all the children in this particular class are 5 years old. What would you most likely see?

A child who is left-handed .

A preference for using one hand rather than the other (‘handedness’) can be seen as early as .

Which of the following is TRUE regarding handedness?

In Piagetian theory, which of the following is the term to describe when a child’s focus is on only one characteristic of a cognitive problem?

Five-year-old Marco draws a picture of a sun with a smiley face and sunglasses. This is an example of .

Which of the following is TRUE regarding theory of mind?

According to your text, what is one of the factors that make cultural learning in developed countries different from cultural learning in traditional cultures?

­Learning to set the table in a developed country, such as New Zealand, or to help prepare food in a non-traditional culture, such as Botswana, are examples of cultural learning. According to Vygotsky, these skills .

While learning language, children who learn English and other Western languages have been shown to fast map first.

Which of the following is TRUE?

In Berko’s (1958) classic experiment, she showed young children a picture of a figure called a ‘wug’ and then showed them two of these figures. She then asked them to respond to the following statement: ‘Now there are two ’. Berko was measuring children’s understanding of what?

Four-year-old Nicco uses infant-directed speech when talking to his neighbour’s new baby. This demonstrates .

Which of the following is TRUE regarding emotional regulation?

In early childhood, .

Gender identity .

The way we organise and process information in terms of gender-based categories is referred to as .

Chris realised that even though the teacher dressed up like Michael Jackson for Halloween, she is still a female. Based on this information, one would expect that Chris .

As a parent of a 3-year-old, you have visited several preschool programs to determine the one that will provide the highest-quality experience. Which of the following should NOT be heavily weighted in your decision about which preschool to choose?

For the Japanese, .

There is a broad consensus among early childhood scholars that preschool teaching should be based on .

­Te Whāriki, the early childhood curriculum of New Zealand, incorporates all of the following EXCEPT:

Which characteristics of quality child care and preschool settings were associated with better literacy and numeracy skills and more prosocial and fewer problem behaviours?

Research on parenting has found that .

If parents listen receptively to opinions from their children, their parenting style is considered to be .

The dimension of parenting known as responsiveness is also known as .

The use of shame as a punishment .

Which of the following is the most accurate statement based on existing research?

Hyejin is an only child from China. Which of the following is most likely TRUE?

Based on the research, which of the following is most likely TRUE of Sebastian, a 4-year-old American male?

Which of the following would you most likely see 5-year-olds doing in a playground in a Western culture?

Which of the following is TRUE regarding media use in early childhood?

Which of the following best describes the physical changes that take place during early childhood?

­The limited memory for personal events and experiences prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the .

The two most common types of nutritional deficiencies in developing countries are a lack of protein and .

How does motor development change between ages 3 and 6?

Which of the following statements about handedness is most accurate?

A 5-year-old child draws a yellow sun in the upper corner of her paper complete with a smiley face and sunglasses. This is an example of .

Which of the following is TRUE regarding theory of mind?

Cultural learning skills, such as learning to set the table in a developed country or to help prepare food in a traditional culture, .

Young children’s use of grammar .

A 4-year-old using infant-directed speech when talking to her neighbour’s new baby demonstrates .

A key reason emotional outbursts decline in early childhood is that children .

Which of the following statements accurately describes moral development in early childhood?

The process by which people seek to maintain consistency between their gender schemas and their behaviour is referred to as .

As a parent of a 3-year-old, you have visited several preschool programs to determine the one that will provide the highest-quality experience. Which of the following should be important in your decision about which preschool to pick, according to research?

In Japan, .

Research on parenting has found that .

Which of the following is the most accurate statement based on existing research?

The use of shame as a form of discipline .

Which of the following is TRUE regarding siblings?

If you were a researcher observing play among 5-year-old children in New Zealand, what would you be most likely to observe?

Screen time during young childhood .

During middle childhood .

During middle childhood, sharply increases.

During middle childhood, there is an increase in myelination of the that accelerates the reaction time for both boys and girls.

For 6-year-old Emmanuel, which of the following fine motor tasks is developmentally appropriate?

By the time Shawna has reached the end of middle childhood, what abilities are close to adult maturity?

Learning to set the table in a developed country, such as New Zealand, or to help prepare food in a non-traditional culture, such as Botswana, are examples of cultural learning. According to Vygotsky, these skills .

Te Whāriki, the early childhood curriculum of New Zealand, incorporates all of the following EXCEPT:

The limited memory for personal events and experiences prior to age 5 is probably due to incomplete myelination of the .