Chemistry: Matter, Energy, and States

Basic Chemistry: Matter and Energy

• Matter is the substance of the universe, occupying space and having mass, and is perceivable through senses.
• Mass is the constant amount of matter in an object, whereas weight varies due to gravity.
• Chemistry is the study of matter, particularly its composition and interactions.
• Matter has three states: solid, liquid, and gas, each with definite or indefinite shape and volume.
• Energy is intangible, without mass or space, but is measurable by its effects on matter; it's the capacity to perform work.
• Kinetic energy is energy in action, evident in atomic movement and object motion
• Potential energy is stored energy, capable of future work, like batteries or still water behind a dam
• Potential energy converts to kinetic energy when released.
• Matter and energy are inseparable; matter is the substance, and energy is the mover, essential for life processes.

Major Energy Forms

• Chemical energy is stored in molecular bonds and released during reactions, captured in ATP for cellular functions.
• Electrical energy results from moving charged particles, generating currents, and nerve impulses.
• Mechanical energy is directly involved in moving matter, such as leg muscles powering a bicycle.
• Radiant energy (electromagnetic radiation) travels in waves, varying in length, including radio waves, light, and X-rays.
• Light energy stimulates vision, and UV waves stimulate vitamin D production.
• Energy easily converts between forms, though conversions are inefficient, releasing heat.
• This heat from conversion helps maintain body temperature.

Composition of Matter: Elements and Atoms

• Matter consists of elements, unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary means.
• Of the 118 recognized elements, 92 naturally occur.
• Four elements—carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up 96% of body weight.
• Twenty other elements are present in trace amounts
• Atoms are identical particles/building blocks that compose elements, giving each element unique properties
• Atoms comprise protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative charge).
• An atom has a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
• Protons and neutrons have ~1 atomic mass unit (amu), while electrons are negligible in mass.
• Atoms are electrically neutral as proton number equals electron number
• Elements are unique due to different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in their atoms.

Atomic Characteristics

• Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
• For instance, hydrogen’s atomic number is 1.
• Atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Electrons’ mass being negligible. Helium, with 2 protons and 2 neutrons, has an atomic mass of 4.
• Isotopes are structural variations of elements with same protons/electrons, but differing neutron count.
• Isotopes display identical chemical properties; hydrogen has isotopes – ²H and ³H.
• Atomic weight is the average mass of all isotopes of an element, considering abundance in nature.
• Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes undergoing atomic decay/radioactivity.

Molecules and Mixtures: Combining Matter

• Atoms chemically combine to form molecules, held by chemical bonds.
• Molecules of one element combine to form molecules of that element (e.g., O₂).
• Compounds form when two+ different atoms bind (e.g., H₂O).
• Compounds properties are distinct from their constituent atoms.
• Chemical bonds are an attraction between atoms created from electron interactions completed in less than a trillionth of a second.
• Mixtures are two+ components physically intermixed, and typically a state of nature (solutions, colloids, suspensions).

Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

• Solutions are components that are homogeneous mixtures (gases, liquids, or solids).
• Example, air or seawater.
• The solvent dissolves other substances.
• Solutes are present in smaller quantities. Water is the body’s main solvent.
• Solution concentrations are described by the % of solute or milligrams per deciliter (blood glucose measurement).
• Colloids also known as emulsions, are heterogeneous mixtures.
• Example, Jell-O.
• They undergo sol-gel transformations changing from fluid (sol) to solid (gel) states. Cytosol is an example of a colloid.
• Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures with visible solutes settling out if not mixed (e.g., blood).
• All three mix types exist in living/nonliving systems; living material as a complex mix of all three.

Distinguishing Mixtures from Compounds

• Mixtures differ from compounds, as they involve no chemical bonding and retain original atom/molecule properties; they're physically intermixed alone.
• Mixture components can can be physically separated via straining, filtration, etc..
• Compounds require chemical means to separate constituent atoms by breaking the bonds.
• Some mixtures are homogeneous, but others can be heterogenous.

Chemical Bonds: Electron Roles

• Atoms held together by chemical bonds require combination, which is an energy relationship involving electrons of reacting atoms.
• Electrons form clouds around the atom's nucleus.
• Electrons occupy shells, numbered 1-7, where closest shells have strongest attraction to positive nucleus.
• Outermost (valence) shell electrons are responsible for bonding behavior versus inner shell electrons, which are held tightly by nucleus.
• When outer shell is filled to capacity or contains 8 electrons is considered a chemical bond by chemically inert atoms.
• The octet rule/8 states that electrons can still bond if the most outermost shell is full up to 8 electrons.
• Shell 1 holds two electrons.

Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen Bonds

• Three types of chemical bonds are based on attractive forces: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen.
• Ionic bonds form by electron transfer from one atom to another, which gives the ions
• Ions are formed when precise balance of + and - charged is lost.
• When an atom gains an electron is called the electron acceptor- called an anion
• Atoms that lose electrons gain a positive charge, known as cation (+ sign) are electron donors. Opposite charge is required.
• Covelant Bond happens when atoms one or more electrons that are are sheared to allow the atom to fill it's outer electron shell.
• Electrons are not completely transferred, but share electrons in their own form in a covalent bond
• Hydrogen forms single outer shell electron and can fill by sharing pair with another atom.

Chemical Bonds: Molecules and Polarity

• In covalent bonds, electrons are shared equally between the atoms. The molecules formed electrically balanced are nonpolar molecules and have no polarity.
• There are always differences in the electrical balance by the 3D shape with bonds formed from definite angles.
• A molecule's shape will help determine if other atom can interact with it.
• Molecules that are unbalanced and not an equal pair will cause to formation of polar molecules and contains different electron attracting abilities.

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical bonds breaking, creating an arrangement, are the occurrance of chemical reactions.
• Chemical equations describes the resulting reaction and substances.
• Three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, and exchange.
• Atoms forming molecules are referred to as a synthesis reaction.
• Synthesis typically involves a bond formation and are based on constructive activities is called anabolic.
• Moleucles that bond together are a decomposed reaction.
• Decomposition are a reverse reaction synthesis that underlies all degratative cellular body processes is called catabolic.
• A diplace or both displace of a synthesis is called an exhange bond.

Chemical Reactions: Reversibility and Rates

• Chemical reactions can reverse it and do not often show inhibit the the same type of direction.
• Chemical reactions can be prevented even if energy is put back into the system that are irreversal reactions.
• There are atoms and moecules the influence of the seed.
  • They have collide with another with another force to create a repulsion between their elections. -Factors that effect the chemical reactions are Temperture, Concentration, Particle Size,Catalysts.
• Higher temp increase the kenetic energy. -higher concentration of participles increase a successful collions. -smaller participles mover fasted and collision rate moves more faster. -substances will increase the the raet of the reactions where enzymes are catalyts.

Biochemistry: Organic vs. Inorganic

• Biochemistry is the study of everything is in living material. Fallinto 2 major charatorgories: -Organic compounds contain carbin and living and covalnt bonding is very alrge. -Inorganiz compounds everything these acids and basics.

Inorganic Compounds: Water and Salts

• Water is 60-80% of almost every cell
  • high heat capactiy- which has absorbs and releases amount of heat that is appericiable or temperature itself. -high heat of vaporization -solar solvent power. -cushoning.
• salt is an coinoc compound containing ions from from h+ or OH

Acids, Bases, and pH

• electrolyte acids and basses d can comduct ectrical and dicossiate.
• acids have a sour taste and burn hple in your rud by subsances that reclease H+ (ions).

Organic Compounds: Structure and Function

• Organic contain the folloiwmcarbs,lipds protiens nucleic acids and carbon.
• molecules that are unqies are call carbohtdrates that form polyamer that are building blocks.
• Monners are joind by dyhyratiion reactions taht is revimla of hydrogen the mononer.
• There rcaeitn in which monner that is called hytrolis in which rwatrr mocuces addded ti the bonding.
• carbohydarte hydrate carom for 1-2 cel mass taht contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and hyrofen and oxugen contain 2/1
• carbs have be casififed is size with monosaccaride is one sugar.
• diacarrides os two sugar.

Lipids: Structure and Function

• Lipids are insoluble of oil fats and alcohol,
• They found in the carbon, hydrogen, and oxuagen byt oxygen is way lower. The main key features
• Triglucerdes have two types one is composied of glycerol a 3-1 ratio acids.
• fat acid chains can be polar/nonpolar.