Chemistry Fundamentals and Atomic Structure

Fundamental Concepts

• Chemistry is the science of matter and its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy associated with these changes.
• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
• Chemistry is concerned with the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
• It explores the interactions between atoms and molecules.

Atomic Structure

• Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter.
• Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral).
• Electrons (negatively charged) orbit the nucleus.
• The number of protons determines the element.
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
• Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom.
• Atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons.

Periodic Table

• The periodic table organizes elements by their atomic number and properties.
• Elements are arranged in rows (periods) and columns (groups).
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
• Elements are classified as metals, nonmetals, and metalloids based on their properties and reactivity.
• Metals are generally good conductors of heat and electricity.
• Nonmetals are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals.

Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bonds hold atoms together in molecules or compounds.
• Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons between atoms, forming ions with opposite charges that attract.
• Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms.
• Metallic bonding involves the sharing of electrons among many atoms, leading to a "sea of electrons."

States of Matter

• Matter exists in three fundamental states: solid, liquid, and gas.
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume.
• Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container.
• Gases have no fixed shape or volume, they expand to fill their container.

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances.
• Reactants are the substances that undergo change.
• Products are the substances that are formed.
• Chemical equations represent chemical reactions using chemical formulas and symbols.
• Chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes (exothermic or endothermic).
• Stoichiometry is the calculation of amounts of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Solutions

• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances.
• The solute is the substance being dissolved.
• The solvent is the substance doing the dissolving.
• Concentration expresses the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent.
• Solutions have various properties, like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.

Acids and Bases

• Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.
• Bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution.
• The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution.
• Acids and bases react with each other in neutralization reactions to produce water and a salt.

Organic Chemistry

• Organic chemistry deals with carbon-containing compounds.
• Carbon forms the backbone of countless molecules.
• Organic molecules have diverse structures and properties.
• Different kinds of organic reactions are vital to chemical processes.
• Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine their chemical reactivity.

Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics studies energy transformations in chemical and physical processes.
• The first law of thermodynamics deals with energy conservation.
• The second law of thermodynamics addresses the direction of spontaneous processes.
• The third law of thermodynamics defines absolute zero.

Kinetics

• Chemical kinetics studies the rate of chemical reactions.
• Reaction rates are influenced by factors such as temperature, concentration, and catalysts.
• Reaction mechanisms detail the steps involved in a chemical reaction.

Nuclear Chemistry

• Nuclear chemistry studies the structure and reactions of atomic nuclei.
• Radioactive decay involves the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
• Nuclear reactions release enormous amounts of energy.