Chemistry Chapter: Ions and Periodic Table

Chemistry Study Notes

• Periodic Table: Essential tool for organizing elements, showing trends in properties. Elements arranged by atomic number, electron configurations, and properties. Different families/groups have characteristic charges.

• Bohr Diagrams: Visual representations of atomic structure, showing energy levels and arrangement of electrons. Valence electrons determine reactivity. Positive ions form when electrons are lost; negative ions form when electrons are gained.

• Ions and the Periodic Table: Relationship between group number on the periodic table and charges of ions. Many elements readily gain or lose electrons to achieve stable electron configurations.

• Chemical Families Names: Names of families (e.g., halogens, alkali metals) and their associated ions charges.

• Ionic Compound Naming & Formulas: Ionic compounds form from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Naming convention: cation (metal) name + anion (non-metal) name with -ide ending. Calculating formulas uses the charges on the ions.

• Polyatomic Compounds Naming & Formulas: Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms with a net charge covalently bonded together. Knowing their formula allows for predicting formulas of more complex compounds.

• Molecular Compounds Naming & Formulas: Covalent compounds form from the sharing of electrons by atoms. Identifying prefixes in the name of compounds provides clues for determining molecular formulas (e.g., di-, tri-, tetra-).

• Types of Chemical Reactions: Five major types: synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and combustion. Recognizing the type helps in predicting products and balancing equations.

• Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants equals mass of products in a chemical reaction. This rule crucial for balancing equations.

• Counting Atoms: Calculates the number of atoms in a chemical formula or multiple molecules through carefully examining the subscripts and coefficients.

• Balancing Equations: Adjusting the coefficients (numbers in front of formulas) to make the number of each type of atom equal on both sides of the equation.

• Acids & Bases: Properties (e.g., taste, texture, conductivity) and use of the pH scale to measure acidity/basicity. Identifying examples of common acids and bases.

• pH Scale: Scale used for measuring acidity/basicity of a substance. pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic, and above 7 is basic.

Optics Study Notes

• Properties of Light: Light travels at approximately 3.00 x 10⁸ m/s in a vacuum. Light can be reflected, refracted, or absorbed when interacting with matter.

• Electromagnetic Spectrum: A range of waves, from radio waves to gamma rays, varying with wavelength and frequency. Order (longest to shortest wavelength): radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma.

• Plane Mirrors: Reflecting light according to the law of reflection (angle of incidence equals angle of reflection). Creating a virtual image.

• Curved Mirrors: Form different types of images (real or virtual, magnified or diminished) depending on the shape and position of the object relative to the mirror's focal point using LOST rules (located, orientation, size, type).

• Magnification: Ratio of image height to object height, calculated as image height/ object height, reflecting how much larger or smaller an object appears in an image.

• Refraction & Speed of Light: Speed of light changes when light passes from one medium to another, leading to bending (refraction). It bends towards the normal in a medium with higher refractive index and moves away from the normal in a medium with a lower refractive index.

• Human Vision: Understanding how the eye functions and correcting vision problems (nearsightedness and farsightedness) both using lenses.

Biology Study Notes

• Plant and Animal Cells: Differences identified by the presence of structures like a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles in plant cells. Animal cells have structures like centrioles.

• Cell Cycle: Stages of cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis with different phases), and interphase, a period of growth and DNA replication preceding mitosis.

• Cell Specialization: Process where cells develop into different types (e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells) fulfilling their specific bodily functions.

• Animal Tissues: Four major types (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous) with specific functions, examples, and relevant parts of the body.

• Cancer Cells: Uncontrolled cell division, key differences in normal vs cancerous cell growth.

• Organs: Structures composed of multiple types of tissues working together for a particular function. Function of several significant organs in the body.

• Organ Systems: Groups of organs working together to perform major bodily functions. Examples for digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, and excretory systems and specific organs of each.