General Chemistry

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Questions and Answers

What is a characteristic of hypervalent compounds?

  • They utilize empty d orbitals for bonding. (correct)
  • They can only form with period 2 elements.
  • They can only exist as ionic compounds.
  • They always follow the octet rule.

Which factor has the least influence on the covalent character of ionic bonds?

  • Electronegativity of the anion (correct)
  • Charge of the cation
  • Size of the anion
  • Size of the cation

Which statement best describes the octet rule?

  • The octet rule applies solely to noble gases.
  • Atoms cannot exceed an outer shell of 8 electrons.
  • All elements obey the octet rule including transition metals.
  • Atoms aim for a full outer shell of 8 electrons. (correct)

How does a small cation affect its ionic bond with an anion?

<p>It attracts the anion's electrons more strongly. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between electronegativity difference and ionic character in covalent molecules?

<p>Greater electronegativity difference leads to greater ionic character. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which property is characteristic of ionic compounds in their solid state?

<p>They are poor conductors of electricity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of metallic bonding?

<p>Attraction between cations and a sea of delocalized electrons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the octet rule state regarding electron configuration?

<p>Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight valence electrons. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about covalent compounds is true?

<p>They typically have low melting and boiling points. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between ionic and covalent bonding?

<p>Covalent bonding involves sharing electrons, while ionic bonding involves transferring electrons. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes electron-deficient molecules?

<p>They do not achieve an octet due to a shortage of electrons. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a hypervalent molecule?

<p>PCl5 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to ionic compounds when they are melted?

<p>They conduct electricity due to free-moving ions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason metals are good conductors of electricity?

<p>Metals have delocalized electrons that move freely. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which property of metallic bonding explains why metals are malleable?

<p>The overlapping of atomic orbitals allows layers to slide. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes an exception to the octet rule?

<p>Hypervalent molecules have a central atom with more than eight electrons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about ionic compounds formed by metals?

<p>Ionic compounds are primarily formed when metals lose electrons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines an electron-deficient molecule?

<p>A molecule that lacks sufficient electrons for a noble gas configuration. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing characteristic of covalent bonds compared to ionic bonds?

<p>Covalent bonds are typically weaker than ionic bonds. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily contributes to the shiny appearance of metals?

<p>Electrons oscillating at the atomic level. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the bonding behavior of metals?

<p>Metals lose electrons and form positive ions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Hypervalent Compound

A molecule where the central atom has more than 8 electrons in its valence shell.

Ionic Character

The polarity of a covalent bond due to differences in electronegativity between atoms.

Covalent Character in Ionic Bonds

The degree to which an ionic bond exhibits covalent properties.

Polarization (in bonding)

Distortion of electron density in a molecule or bond due to electrostatic attraction.

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Expanded Valence Shell

A central atom exceeding the octet rule by using d-orbitals.

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Metallic Bonding

The strong attraction between a 'sea' of freely moving electrons and positively charged metal ions (cations).

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Delocalized Electrons

Electrons in a metallic bond that are not associated with a specific atom and can move freely throughout the metal structure.

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What makes metals good conductors?

The presence of delocalized electrons, allowing for the easy flow of electrical charge through the material.

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Why are metals malleable and ductile?

The layers of metal ions can slide over each other without disrupting the metallic bond, allowing bending and shaping.

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Octet Rule

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration with eight valence electrons, like a noble gas.

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Electron-deficient Molecules

Molecules where the central atom has fewer than eight valence electrons.

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Hypervalent Molecules

Molecules where the central atom has more than eight valence electrons.

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Odd-electron Molecules

Molecules with an odd number of valence electrons, resulting in an unpaired electron.

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Hund's Rule

States that electrons fill orbitals of the same energy level individually before pairing up, and these individual electrons have parallel spins.

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What is an orbital?

A region around a nucleus where there's a high probability of finding an electron.

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's' orbital

A spherical shaped orbital that is spherically symmetrical, meaning electron density is evenly distributed around the nucleus.

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'p' orbital

A dumbbell-shaped orbital with two lobes, where electron density is concentrated in two regions on opposite sides of the nucleus.

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Covalent Bonding

A type of bonding where two atoms share electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. This sharing creates a strong force of attraction between the atoms.

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Ionic Bonding

A type of bonding where one atom completely loses electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, while the other atom gains electrons, becoming a negatively charged anion. The resulting opposite charges attract, forming a bond.

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Properties of Covalent Compounds

Typically, covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points, are poor conductors of electricity, and are not soluble in water.

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Study Notes

Course Information

  • Course: HNDT 1001 - General Chemistry for Nutrition
  • Lecturer: Keisha Mascoll
  • Semester: 1 2024/2025

Class Attendance

  • All students must scan the QR code and complete required fields for class attendance.
  • Download a QR code reader app (App Store or Google Play Store) if device is incompatible.

Course Meeting Times and Location

  • Lecture: Thursday 1:00 PM - 3:00 PM - MSR3
  • Lab: Thursday 3:00 PM - 5:00 PM - MLTC (lab)
  • Tutorial: Friday 9:00 AM - 10:00 AM - MSR3

Course Rubric

  • Mode of Delivery: Face-to-face
  • Laboratory Session: Face-to-face
  • Labs: 5, 25% weight, 5 weekly written reports on lab work assignments
  • Quizzes: 2, 20% weight, multiple choice, short answer, & calculations. 1.5 hours
  • Mid-Term Test: 1, 15% weight, multiple choice, short answer, & calculations, 1.5 hours
  • Final Examination: 1, 40% weight, multiple choice, short answer, & calculations, 2 hours

Test Dates

  • Quiz 1: Friday, October 4th, 2024, 1 hour, closed book
  • Mid-term: Thursday, October 24th, 2024, 1 hour 30 minutes, closed book
  • Quiz 2: Thursday, November 14th, 2024, 1 hour, closed book

Laboratory Schedule

  • Week 4, Lab #1: Mole Ratio & Reaction Stoichiometry, Date: 26th September 2024
  • Week 8, Lab #2: Titration of Acids & Bases, Date: 24th October 2024
  • Week 10, Lab #3: Determination of Equilibrium Constant, Date: 7th November 2024
  • Week 11, Lab #4: Calorimetry, Date: 14th November 2024
  • Week 12, Lab #5: Worksheet, Date: 21st November 2024

Required/Essential Text

  • Blackman, A., et al. (2019). Chemistry (4th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
  • ISBN-13: 978-0730363268, ISBN-10: 0730363287
  • McMurry, J., et al. (2016). Fundamentals of General, Organic and Biological Chemistry (8th ed.). London: Pearson. ISBN-13: 978-0134015187, ISBN-10: 0134015185
  • Petrucci, R., et al. (2016). General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications (11th ed.). London: Pearson. ISBN-13: 978-0132931281, ISBN-10: 0132931281

Learning Outcomes

  • Describe the atom's structure (protons, neutrons, electrons), relative charges, and masses.
  • Use chemical symbols to express isotopes' subatomic compositions, using atomic numbers and mass numbers.
  • Describe the periodic table's organization by atomic number and chemical behavior (periods and groups).
  • Identify locations of metals and nonmetals in the periodic table.
  • Review electronic configurations.
  • Differentiate between molecular and ionic substances.
  • Explain ion formation (electron gain/loss) and predict common ion charges.

Topics

  • Atomic Number & Mass Numbers
  • Isotopes
  • Periodicity
  • Chemical Bonding
  • Covalent Bonding
  • Ionic Bonding
  • Metallic Bonding
  • Valence
  • Octet Rule
  • Ionic vs. Covalent Bonding

Atomic & Molecular Prospective

  • Matter: atoms, ions, or molecules.
  • Atom: smallest part of an element or compound that participates in chemical reactions.
  • Molecule: groups of atoms held together with a specific connectivity and shape.
  • Matter classified by: State (gas, liquid, solid), Composition (element, compound, mixture).

Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

  • Pure Substance: fixed composition and distinct properties.
  • Elements: identical atoms, e.g., oxygen (O2), gold (Au), silicon (Si), diamond (C).
  • Compounds: more than one type of atom bonded, e.g., water (H2O), ethanol (C2H6O), sodium chloride (NaCl).
  • Mixtures: variable composition, separable into components, properties depending on component amounts.

Molecular View of Elements & Compounds

  • Classification of elements and compounds.
  • Diagram showing atomic and molecular views of elements and compounds (e.g. Ne, O2, H2O, NaCl).

Homogeneous & Heterogeneous Mixtures

  • Homogeneous Mixture: uniform throughout (e.g., air, coffee, vodka, blood, brass).
  • Heterogeneous Mixture: non-uniform throughout (e.g., smog, ice cubes in drink, sand in water, concrete).

Structure of the Atom

  • Protons (positive charge, mass 1), Neutrons (neutral charge, mass 1), Electrons (negative charge, negligible mass).
  • Protons and neutrons located in nucleus, electrons orbit the nucleus.

Atomic & Mass Numbers

  • Mass Number: sum of protons and neutrons.
  • Atomic Number: number of protons (or electrons).

Isotopes

  • Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different masses due to different neutron numbers.

Uses of Isotopes

  • Stable isotopes used in nutritional studies.
  • Practical applications: calcium and iron absorption, diet, physical activity, aging, medical therapy, nutrient metabolism, pregnancy energy cost, growth faltering, childhood and adult obesity.
  • Isotopes utilized for metabolic studies, body composition assessment, and protein turnover.

Periodicity

  • Elements arranged in periodic table by increasing atomic number, similar properties grouped together.
  • Major classifications of elements: Main group (representative), transition metals, metalloids.

Major Classifications of Elements

  • Main group elements: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases.
  • Transition metals.
  • Metalloids.
  • Trends of atomic radius, electron affinity, ionization energy, electronegativity.
  • Trends across periods and groups.

Relative Abundance of Elements in the Human Body

  • Human body comprised of ~ 99% of 6 elements (O, C, H, N, Ca, P) and a further 5 elements (S, K, Na, Cl, Mg), with ~0.15% of the rest being trace elements.

The Electronic Configuration of Atoms

  • Aufbau Principle: electrons fill orbitals of lowest energy levels first.
  • Pauli Exclusion Principle: an orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins.
  • Hund's Rule: orbitals with the same energy are singly occupied before pairing occurs.

Shapes and Symmetry of Atomic Orbitals

  • Atomic orbitals have specific shapes and symmetry.
  • S orbital: spherical symmetry.
  • P orbital: dumbbell shape, with two lobes.
  • D orbital: more complex shapes.

Chemical Bonds

  • Bond: force of attraction between oppositely charged particles.
  • Covalent Bond: sharing of valence electrons between atoms.
  • Ionic Bond: complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
  • Metallic Bond: overlap of orbitals extending over three dimensions (3D) with delocalized electrons.

Covalent Bonding

  • Sharing of valence electrons between atoms.
  • Resulting molecules are product of covalent bonds, typically occurring between nonmetals.
  • Different types of covalent bonds: single, double, triple bonds.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

  • Low melting and boiling points.
  • Poor conductors of electricity.
  • Generally not soluble in water.

Ionic Bonding

  • Complete transfer of electrons between a metal and a nonmetal.
  • Formation of ions (cations (+) and anions (-) )
  • Electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Properties of Ionic Bonding

  • High melting points.
  • Poor electrical conductivity in solid state.
  • Conduct electricity in molten or aqueous solution.

Metallic Bonding

  • Overlapping of atomic orbitals in three dimensions.
  • Delocalized electrons throughout the structure.
  • Metals generally lose electrons to become positively charged cations.
  • Tend to form ionic compounds with nonmetals.

Octet Rule

  • Main group elements tend to form compounds by either gaining or losing electrons to achieve 8 valence electrons.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

  • Electron-deficient molecules: central atom has fewer electrons than normal.
  • Hypervalent molecules: central atom has more electrons than normal.
  • Odd-electron molecules: odd number of valence electrons, so electron is unpaired.

Ionic Bonding & Covalent Bonding

  • Few compounds are 100% ionic or covalent.
  • Ionic character depends on electronegativity difference.
  • Covalent character in ionic compounds influenced by cation/anion size and charge.

Review Topics

  • Atomic Structure & Composition, Periodic Table and its classifications.
  • Characteristics of Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids, Chemical Formulas, Chemical Nomenclature.
  • Common Monoatomic Ions, Common Polyatomic Ions, Formula of Compounds.

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