Chemical Weapons & Toxins

• The handbook is regarding Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) in VBSS (Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure) Training.
• It was prepared under the "Support to Sri Lanka on Counter-Terrorism" project with funding from the European Union, in collaboration with the Sri Lankan Navy.
• The views expressed do not reflect the official opinion of the European Union.

Chemical Agents and Weapons

• Chemical weapons are toxic chemicals that cause death, injury, incapacitation, or sensory damage, delivered via systems like artillery shells, rockets, or ballistic missiles, and can exist as solids, liquids, or gases.
• Toxins are poisonous substances produced by living organisms, considered chemical or biological weapons, and are subject to the CWC (Chemical Weapons Convention) due to modern chemistry's ability to synthesize a growing number of them.
• Ricin and Saxitoxin are two toxins listed on Schedule 1 of the CWC.

Toxins vs Chemical Agents

• Toxins can be naturally occurring and are difficult to produce on a small scale, generally more toxic, have legitimate medical uses, are odorless and tasteless, and have diverse toxic effects delivered via aerosol.
• Chemical agents are artificially produced, made on a large industrial scale, less toxic, have almost no medical uses, possess a noticeable odor or taste, have fewer types of effects, and are delivered via mist/droplet/aerosol.

Chemical Weapons

• Chemical weapons include toxic chemicals which cause death, temporary incapacitation, or permanent harm to humans or animals through chemical action.
• CWS also include any devices specifically designed to inflict harm or cause death through the release of toxic chemicals like mortars, artillery shells, missiles, bombs, mines, or spray tanks,
• Equipment specifically designed for use in connection with munitions and devices identified as chemical weapons are considered chemical weapons

Examples of CWs

• Fully developed chemical weapons and their stored components such as binary munitions
• Chemicals used as precursors to produce chemical weapons
• Chemicals used to cause intentional death or harm
• Dual use items that have peaceful civilian uses, when used or intended for chemical weapons use
• Munitions and devices intended to deliver toxic chemicals
• Equipment directly connected with munitions and devices

Indicators of a Chemical Weapon Attack

• There are no common indicators across all chemical agents
• Some chemical agents exposure may show clear visual signs like:
  • Eye irritation
  • Visual changes
  • Vomiting and diarrhea
  • Coughing
  • Breathing difficulties and respiratory irregularities
  • Muscle weakness
  • Paralysis and seizures
  • Skin redness, irritation and burns
  • Collapse
  • Loss of consciousness or death

History of Use of Chemical Weapons

• In World War I, Germany released chlorine gas in Ypres, Belgium in April 1915, resulting in 600 deaths.
• In 1917, mustard gases introduction injured over a million soldiers and killed 100,000 during WWI.
• Iraq used chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988) and against the Kurds in Halabja in 1988.
• The Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo was behind the Tokyo Sarin attack in 1995, which killed 13 and injured 5,800.
• In February 2017, VX, used to assassinate Kim Jong-nam in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
• In March 2018, Novichok used to assassinate Sergei Skripal and his daughter, Yulia, in the UK.

International Conventions

• 1925 Geneva Convention bans the use of asphyxiating, poisonous, or other gases, and bacteriological methods of warfare.
• CWC (Chemical Weapons Convention) bans the production, stockpiling, transferring, and use of chemical weapons.
• The OPCW implements the CWC.

CWC Schedules and Parts

• Schedule 1 items have few or no uses other than as and to make CW's
  • Includes nerve agents, sulfur mustards, nitrogen mustards, and lewisite
• Schedule 2 items could be used as or to make weapons, but also have legitimate small scale uses
  • Includes Amiton and BZ (Benzalite).
• Schedule 3 items could be used as or to make weapons, but also have large scale uses other than CW
  • Examples include Chlorine

CWC Effects

• States agree to never develop, produce, acquire, stockpile, or transfer chemical weapons.
• States agree to never use chemical weapons, engage in military preparations to use them, or assist anyone in activities prohibited by the convention.
• States must destroy chemical weapons they own, possess, or abandoned in accordance with the Convention.
• States agree not to use riot control agents as a method of warfare.

Types of Chemical Agents

• Choking agents
• Blister agents
• Blood agents
• Herve agents
• Riot control agents

Choking Agents

• Choking agents injure the respiratory tract, causing fluid buildup in lungs,
• Protective masks are required for defense
• Includes agents like Chlorine (Cl), Chloropicrin (PS), Diphosgene (DP), Phosgene (CG)
• Dispersal occurs through gas.
• Absorption through lungs is the mode of action.
• A malicious program can easily hide behind a normal industrial/research chemistry front.

Phosgene

• Gas that is easy to disperse above 8.2°C.
• 18 times more toxic than Chlorine, but less irritating, smelling like new-mown hay.
• It is made with important compounds, including pharmaceuticals and plastics.
• More difficult to make than chlorine
• Causes suffocation by reacting with proteins and disrupting the transfer of oxygen to the body.

Blistering Agents

• Exposure to blistering agents result in large and life-threatening skin blisters, blindness, and permanent damage to the respiratory system.
• Protective masks and clothing is required for defense.
• Dispersal can occur through liquid, aerosol, vapor, and dust.
• Inhalation of skin is the mode of action.
• Burns of skin, mucous membranes and eyes, blisters skin, windpipe, and lungs are the effects
• Includes agents like Sulfur mustard (H, HD), nitrogen mustard (HN), lewisite (L), and phosgene oxime (CX)
• Thiodiglycol (CWC Schedule 2 Part B) is used to make many things, including pen inks, plastics, pesticides, dyes, and photographic developing solutions by firms in several countries, including Germany and the UK.

Sulfur Mustard

• Called "mustard" because of its horseradish- or garlic-like smell.
• Fat-soluble, dissolving in the oils in the skin and causing chemical burns and blisters.
• Relatively easy to make and can remain on the ground for weeks.

Physical Properties of Sulfur Mustard Gas

• Can remain in environment for up to a week (but much longer if buried beneath soil surface)
• Pale yellow or amber color
• Usually odorless but can smell like mustard, onions, or garlic
• Heavier than air

Sulfur Mustard Treatment

• Application of household bleach or DS2 limits blister formation.
• Patients receive standard burn victim treatment post their initial treatment
• Symptoms appear after 24 hours, treatments are less likely to be applied in time to avoid problems.
• Fatal in 2% of the exposures, so mostly used as an incapacitating agent

Blood Agents

• Blood agents inhibit the ability of cells to use oxygen, causing suffocation.
• Protective masks are required for defense.
• Absorption through lungs and skin is the mode of action.
• Includes agents like Hydrogen cyanide (AC), Cyanogen chloride (CK), Arsine (SA)
• Impaired cells' ability to use oxygen is the effect, leading to damage to vital organs including the nervous system, heart and respiratory system.

Blood Agents: Hydrogen Cyanide

• Used in industry to make many important chemicals.
• Fatal at concentrations as low as 300 mg/m3 in air.
• Per OPCW, has no confirmed uses as CW, but may have been used by U.S., France, and Italy in WWI and by Iraq against Iran and the Kurds and unlike chlorine and phosgene, it's less dense than air, so it disperses too quickly to be effective outside.

Nerve Agents

• Nerve agents stimulate muscles, glands, and other nerves, are highly toxic, and act primarily by absorption through the skin and lungs.
• Protective masks and clothing are required for defense.
• Absorption through lungs is the mode of action.
• Includes agents like Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB), Soman (GD), Cyclosarin (GF), VX
• Sweating, blurred vision, headache, difficulty in breathing and vomiting are the effects.
• Seizures, loss of body control, muscle paralysis and unconsciousness can also occur.
• Nerve agents are divided into G-series and V-series.
• Some G-agents, like Tabun and Sarin, persist briefly.
• V-agents are potent, using only milligrams to deadly effect, and persist for long periods.

Physical Properties of VX

• VX is three times more toxic when inhaled and a thousand times more toxic when absorbed through the skin than Sarin
• A small drop is enough to kill an adult in 15 minutes
• Dispersed as an airborne mist or spray, clinging to surfaces.
• When sprayed on the ground, it remains lethal for up to three weeks, making it an area denial weapon.

Physical Properties of Sarin

• 1.7 mg absorbed through the skin, can kill within 5-10 minutes
• Sarin evaporates quickly, is odorless/tasteless/colorless.
• Absorbed slowly through skin when spread in aerosol or liquid form.
• Heavier than air and hard to make

Dual Use of Chemicals

• Most precursors have legitimate commercial uses.
• Dual-use nature impedes detection of CW programs.
• Trade in precursors is monitored and controlled.
  • Thiodiglycol is used for plastics, textile dyes and ink, and makes mustard agent.
  • Phosphorus trichloride is used for plasticizers and insecticides, and makes sarin.
  • Sodium cyanide is used for dyes and pigments, nylon and metal hardening, and makes HCN.
  • Methylphosphonic difluoride is used for organic synthesis, and makes sarin and VX.
  • Phosphorus pentasulfide is used for insecticides, lubricants and pyrotechnics, and makes VX.

Detection Technique

• Collection of evidence via environmental and biomedical samples, interviews, photos, video, on-site detectors, and OPCW designated laboratory network.
• Environmental samples include residue from a reaction or waste container
• Contaminated clothing, hair, soil, water, etc.
• Biomedical samples include urine, blood, plasma, and tissue.

Detection Equipment

• Laser driven Raman Spectroscopy
• This method uses no sample prep, making analyses through glass, and is portable and easy to use with fast analysis, but is cons not sensitive as GC/MS and works best with pure chemicals

Detection Technique

• The Attenuated total reflectance fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR FT-IR) method does not need a sample prep and has fast analysis that is portable and easy to use
• Not as sensitive as GC/MS and works best with pure chemicals

Summary of Chemical Agents

• Nerve Agents
  • Sarin and VX are examples
  • They are odorless
  • Actions are rapid for vapors
  • Headache, runny nose, salivation, pinpointing of pupils, difficulty in breathing, tight chest, seizures, convulsions, nausea, and vomiting are signs and symptons
  • To treat them, remove from area, treat symptomatically with Atropine and pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM chloride), and diazepam for seizure control
  • Decontaminate by removing from the area, remove clothing, flush with soap and water, and aerate
• Blister Agents
  • Mustard is an example
  • Garlic is the odor
  • Actions are delayed
  • Red, burning skin, blisters, sore throat, dry cough; eye damage, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are signs and symptoms, noting that symptoms may be delayed 2 to 24 hours
  • Decontaminate with copious amounts of water, remove clothing, support the airway, and treat symptomatically
  • Decontaminate by removing from the area, remove clothing, flush with soap and water, and aerate
• Blood Agents
  • Hydrogen cyanide is an example agent
  • Burnt almonds as a odor
  • Actions are rapid
  • Cherry red skin/lips, rapid breathing, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, dilated pupils, excessive salivation, and respiratory arrest
  • First aid would consist of removing from the area, assist ventilations, treat symptomatically, and administer a cyanide kit
  • The decontamination would be to, remove from the area, remove clothing, flush with soap and water, and aerate
• Choking Agents
  • Chlorine and Phosgene are choking agents
  • Bleach and mown hay are examples of choking agents
  • The actions are rapid at high concentrate and are delayed at lower concentrate
  • Eye and airway irritation, dizziness, tightness in the chest, pulmonary edema, painful cough, nausea, and headache are signs and symptons
  • First aid would consist of removing from the area, remove contaminated clothing, assist ventilations, and rest
  • The decontamination would be to, remove from the area, remove clothing, flush with soap and water, and aerate

Biological Agents and Weapons

• Biological agents are the deliberate use of pathogens or toxins against humans, livestock, or crops for military purposes.
  • Pathogens include virus, bacteria, prion, fungus, and protozoan microorganizms
  • Toxins are organically produced poisons.
• Potential BW targets are human beings such as anthrax, plague, and smallpox and botulinum toxin, livestock such as foot and mouth disease and glanders, and crops such as rice blast fungus.

Biological Weapons: Consequenses

• The effects of bio weapon depend on many factors such delivery method, size of aerosolized particles and weather conditions
• Effects vary widely and can kill, cause physical degradation, incapacitate.
• Defenses are possible, but variables like vaccination and treatment post exposure.
• Consequence management is crucial after an attack

Biological Weapons: Threat Assessment

• BW Threat assessments hard to estimate because covert, therefore impacts has a range of possibilities from minimal to catastrophic
• 50kg of anthrax in city could kill about 1,000,000 people
• Many attempted attacks kill no one
• Some defensive measures are possible, but future genetic engineering hard to forecast

Chemical Weapons vs Biological Weapons

• Chemical Weapons cause physiological effects and are human made.
• Biological Weapons come from living microorganisms
  • They produce sickness (infection) or poisons (toxins) & Pathogens = living organisms that produce disease
  • Toxins = non-living chemical poisons made by living organisms
• Agents: bacterial (single-celled), rickettsial (parasitic, live inside cells, treatable with antibiotics), and viral cannot be treated with antibiotics and has to replicate in living cells.
• The source of toxin (naturally occurring poisons) are from ricin and botulinum

Ranking Dangers

• Infectious vs Contagious
  • Infectious describes how little is need to make someone sick
  • Contagious spreading from person to person
• Categories A, B, and C
  • A is the easiest, higest morality such as Anthrax, plague, smallpox, Ebola, or botulism
  • B are moderate danger
  • C are emerging, potential future threat.

Routes of Infection

• Biological weapon agents effective with inhalation an an aerosol Ingestion is a potential covert food or water, mostly with food better than water
• Entry through wounds and abrasions possible

BW Agent Characteristics

• Anthrax is a bacteria agent
  • Is lethal and has negligible potential for epidemic
  • 75% mortality even with treatment when inhaled
  • Vaccine if administered months before
  • Antibiotics needed if administered before acute symtpoms
  • Is extremely robust, especially well suited to missile or bomb delivery, cleaning up contaminated are very costly, is relatively easy to produce and is not contagious from one individual to another.
• Smallpox is a virus agent
  • It is lethal and carries high potential for epidemic
  • A virus must be treated with vaccine, or cannot be if post infection
  • Spread via droplets, fomites
  • Eradicated in 1979

Dual Use Problem

• All equipment, technology & materials for BW agents production are dual-use.
• Little apparent distinction between vaccine or pharmaceutical plant from BW production facility.
• BW production requires knowledge derived from legitimate research.

The Dual Use Dillema

• BW production needs no specialized facilities and has no specialized materials.
• The AIl essential technology and know how is dual use.
• Makes BTWC hard to verify , and program may only be intent

Conclusions

• The potential for use of BW as WMD remains high, and makes international control hard to make
• The threat as a single problem causes a scale of catastrophic
• Advances mean its critical so to gauge urgency for BW control

Radiological and Nuclear Materials and Weapons

• Radiation is energy emitted from atoms as particles and/or waves.
  • Uranium-235 (U-235) and Uranium-238 (U-238) are both isotopes of uranium.
  • Front line officers use gamma and neutron radiation detection instruments for passive inspection of conveyances, objects, or persons.
  • Radioactive material is broadly defined as any material that emits radiation.
• Radiation exposure results from interaction with the body, but does not mean you become radioactive, and can be reduced or blocked by shielding
• Contamination is radioactive substances on surfaces, within solids, liquids or gases giving rise to their presence can be spread.

Types of Radiation

• Alpha particle
• Beta particle
• Gamma rays and X-rays
• Neutron

Naturally Occurring Radiation Materials (NORM)

• NORM contains naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, which typically emit gamma radiation .
• Rocks, soil, some food, fertilizer, and ceramics are some examples
• Common naturally occurring radioactive isotopes found in NORM include Thorium-232 (Th-232), Potassium-40 (K-40), Radium-226 (Ra-226), and U-238.
• Common Norm include construction materials ceramics and glass,
• Food, plants, household items, Rocks and minerals for industrial equipment. Large shipments such as fertilizer or ceramics remit detectable amounts radiation

Radioactive Source

• Applications include medical, non-medical products, Gauging, Imaging, testing Materials
• Source is permanently sealed in capsule or bonded in a solid form
  • Common Sealed Radioactive Sources:
    • Gamma sources:
      • Cs-137: calibration, radiography, gauges and well logging
      • Co-60: radiography, sterilization, gauges and lightning rods
      • Ir-192: radiography
      • Ra-226: gauges, some smoke detectors, and lightning rods

Nuclear Material

• Any source or special fissionable material:
  • Source material (natural uranium, depleted Uranium, Thorium)
  • Special Fissionable Material (Pu-239, U-233, Uranium enriched in U-233 or U-235)

Significant Quantities of Nuclear Material

• The minimum fissionable quantity that, if diverted from peaceful use, without further enrichment or chemical separation, to manufacture a nuclear explosive device.
  • Plutonium (PU 230 > 95 %) minimum to manufacter 8kg
  • (U - 238 MORE THAN 20 %) minimum to manufacter 25 kg
  • (U - 233) minimum to manufacter 8kg

International Conventions and Regulations

• Non - Proliferation Treaty: created Nuclear and Non- Nuclear Weapon States
• IAEA is a Vienna energy agency
• United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1373 and 1540

Regulatory and Outside Material

• Institutional control applied by any competent authority as legislative and regulatory required. controls include authorized user transfer handeling.
• Material out Regulatory: absense of direct control for either those required or being controlled

Weaponization

• Radiation Explosive Device
• Radiation Dispersion Device
• Improved devices

Dispersal Device

• Spreads to contaminate with fear , doesnt produce nuclear explosion
• Devices designed radiation exposure
• Type 1Hidden source confine and unaware Type 2: Ingestion exposure.

How Material Becomes MORC

• Source orphan: control lost, stolen, misplaced. transfer authorization
• Avoid cost dump fees
• no used and not for authorisatin

Abandoned Source of Scrap Metal

• Recycling equipment melt lead contaminations
• product: detected on commercial covers detected metal jewellery
• cs 127 commonly found

Porential consequences

• Health from exploision
• Evacuation damange
• Soil water contaiminated
• Bahavou organization
• Movement and restrictions.

Chronology Nuclear Radiological Act

• theft user supply Illegal transfer
• Illegel market
• State disuputed
• abandonded.

Transfer Vectors includes

• borders and aiport

Ta CTICS

• hieldings
• Radiation hazards

Personal Radiation Detection

• used to ddetect radation
• Naval law enforcemen
• level
• RIIDS.

Survey mETER

• Handhelp
• alpha,beta,gamma

###Radiation Portal Monitoring

• elevated survey deploy

Hazardous Substances and Labelling

• Reasons for development in international and label uniform standards

GHS

• Classification harmonization
• health physical hazard communication
• not Regulation standard
• hazard communication and application

Hazard Classification

• Start and communication
• Hazard identify assignment

Hazard Class

• 16 physical /health
• envirmental

GHS Phsycil HarZard

• explosive
• FLAMMABLE
• PRESSER
• SOILD EXPLOSIVE
• OXIDIZING
• CORRASIVEE
• WATERFLAMMABILITY
• SELF R

3Health Harzard

• ACUTIYO
• ITCH
• EYE
• TARGET
• Aspurtion hazard

GHS envriometnal harzard

• Acute toxicity
• bio acount.

Hazard subatance

• Danger of explosivmess
• Phycom chemivial tociix

LEABLLELMENTSS

Product Signal picotgan statement Chemidal manufacturer.

Clas statement

• coding hazars example:H hazard group

Precoutiuon state

• group 4 state store dispodl exapole p, h state handle

Precaution

• signal word hazard symbol
• clasg hazard inform.

Explore the characteristics, physical states, and weaponization of chemical weapons and toxins. Understand their regulation under the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and challenges in verification. Learn about delivery methods and the key differences between toxins and traditional chemical agents.