CETE 011: Carpentry Module 1 - Lumber Materials

Introduction to Carpentry

• Carpentry is a skilled trade and craft that involves cutting, shaping, and installing building materials during construction.
• Traditionally, carpenters worked with natural wood, but now they use many other materials, including natural and engineered lumber.
• Preparation of natural wood includes splitting, hewing, and sawing.

Wood Framing System

• A post is a main vertical or leaning support in a structure, similar to a column or pillar.
• A girder is a principal beam extending from wall to wall, or a structural member that supports the floor joists.
• Floor joists are parts of the floor system that support the floorboards, and are fastened on the girders at a distance of 0.3 to 0.4 meters.
• A sill is a part of a house that rests horizontally upon the foundation, and is fastened with anchor bolts to the foundation wall or beam.
• A header is a short traverse joist that supports the end of the cut-off joist, such as a stair well hole.
• A trimmer is a supporting joist that carries an end portion of a header.

Light Steel Frames

• Light gauge steel frame construction is an innovative and reliable construction method that offers several advantages, including buildability, strength, design flexibility, sustainability, and being light in weight.
• Light gauge steel frame elements are manufactured based on ASTM standard A1003, from structural steel sheets that are formed into strong C or Z shapes.

Flooring

• Flooring refers to the wooden board commonly used in wood flooring materials.
• The flooring system can be made up of C-sections as joists connected to C section bearers, and can be designed for metal sheets or tiles.
• Floor joists can be made from C-section sizes depending on loading parameters.

Roof System

• The roof structure is generally a steel truss system, which can be designed for metal sheets or tiles, and can suit all types of roof design.

Connections

• Light gauge steel members are usually joined with self-drilling, self-tapping screws, which drill their own holes and form helical threads in the holes.
• Welding is often employed to assemble panels of light gauge steel framing that are prefabricated in a factory, and is sometimes used on the building site where particularly strong connections are needed.

Introduction to Masonry

• Masonry is the art of building with stone, bricks, concrete blocks, and other similar materials.
• The art of building has its origin from the land of Mesopotamia, China, and Egypt, as manifested from some stone edifices still existing today.

Masonry Building Materials

• Stones are relatively strong under compression, but weak under tension, making them good for making walls and pillars, but poor as beams and roof structures.
• Rubble stones are irregular stones with good face for the wall surface, and the gaps between stones are filled with small or broken cement mortar.
• Bricks are manufactured from clay and other materials, processed into a workable consistency, molded to sizes, and fired in a kiln to make them strong, durable, and attractive.
• Concrete hollow blocks (CHB) are building modules resembling large bricks, molded from sand and cement, and are widely used for walls, partitions, dividers, and fences.

Cement, Aggregates, Mortars, and Concrete

• Cement is a bonding agent that reacts with water to form a hard stone-like substance that is resistant to disintegration in water.
• Hydraulic cement has specific combinations of silicate and aluminates of lime.
• Portland cement is a type of hydraulic cement, and is widely used in various small and large constructions, including roads and highways.
• Type of Portland cement as per ASTM C150 includes:
  • Type I: For general use, when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
  • Type IA: Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
  • Type II: For general use, more especially when moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of hydration is desired.
  • Type IIA: Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
  • Type III: For use when high early strength is desired.
  • Type IIIA: Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired.
  • Type IV: For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
  • Type V: For use when high sulfate resistance is desired.
• Admixtures include:
  • Type B: Retarding admixture that retards the setting of concrete.
  • Type C: Accelerating admixture that accelerates the setting and early strength development of concrete.
  • Type D: Water-reducing and retarding admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and retards the setting of concrete.
  • Type E: Water-reducing and accelerating admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and accelerates the setting and early strength development of concrete.### Strength Development of Concrete
• Structures exposed to high levels of sulfate ions require TYPE F Water-reducing Admixture (High Range), which reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency by 12% or greater.

Admixtures

• Defined by ASTM, an admixture is a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cementitious material, and fiber reinforcement that is used as an ingredient of a cementitious mixture to modify its properties and that is added to the batch before or during its mixing.
• Types of admixtures include:
  • TYPE A Water-reducing Admixture: reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency.
  • TYPE F Water-reducing Admixture (High Range): reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency by 12% or greater.
  • TYPE G Water-reducing, High Range, and Retarding Admixture: reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency by 12% or greater and retards the setting of concrete.
  • AIR ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES: improves the durability of concrete by entraining billions of microscopic air bubbles, which create space for the relief of pressure built up in the smaller cavities when filled with water that expands when it freezes.

Pozzolan Cement

• An amorphous silica hardened as silica gel by reacting chemically with alkali in the presence of water.
• The name Pozzolan is derived from Pozzuoli, an Italian town where Pozzolana, a composition of glassy tuff was found.
• A siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value, but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form cementitious hydrates.

Aggregates

• Inert materials that when bound together into a conglomerated mass by cement and water form concrete, mortar.
• The aggregate component is about 75% of the total mass of concrete.
• Types of aggregates include:
  • Coarse Aggregate (GRAVEL): a portion of aggregates that is greater than 4.76mm and less than 75mm in size.
  • Fine Aggregate (SAND): aggregate materials with sizes between 0.074mm to 4.75mm.

Mortars

• Workable paste prepared by adding water to a mixture of binding material and fine aggregate.
• This plastic paste is useful to hold building materials such as stone or brick together.
• Types of mortars used in masonry construction include:
  • Brick Laying or Stone Laying Mortar: used to bind bricks and stones in masonry construction.
  • Finishing Mortar: used for pointing and plastering works.

Concrete

• An artificial stone as a result of mixing cement, fine, and coarse aggregates, and water.
• The conglomeration of these materials producing a solid mass is called plain concrete.
• Concrete with embedded reinforcement such as steel is called reinforced concrete.

Basic Consideration in Mixing Concrete

• Workability of Concrete: the property determining the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed quantity of concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity.
• Strength of Concrete: measured in its ability to resist stresses caused by different forces (compression, tension, shear, and flexure).
• Other considerations in mixing concrete include:
  • Curing of Concrete
  • Density of Concrete
  • Proportioning of Concrete

Formworks and Scaffolding

• Forms must be substantially strong and rigid enough to sustain the weight and horizontal pressure of fresh concrete.

• Forms must be watertight, simple, and economically designed to be removed and reassembled easily without damaging to the forms and concrete.

• Basic considerations in the selection of formworks include:

  • Cost of Materials
  • Construction and Assembling Cost
  • Number of Times it Could be Used
  • Strength and Resistance to Pressure, Wear, and Tear### Formwork Materials

• Thin plywood sheets cannot sustain the weight of concrete and may bow out if not provided with proper thickness.

• Steel formwork is very costly but can be used multiple times, provides excellent finish to concrete surfaces, and is strong and safe for mass structures like dams and bridges.

• Advantages of steel formwork: durable, stronger, provides uniform and smooth surface finish, great reusability, and easy to fix and dismantle.

• Disadvantages of steel formwork: very costly, heavy in weight, requires lifting equipment, and prone to corrosion.

• Aluminum formwork is lightweight, strong, and requires fewer supports and ties.

• Advantages of aluminum formwork: easy to fix and dismantle, can be handled easily, re-usable, and the walls and slabs of structures can be built using aluminum formwork.

• Disadvantages of aluminum formwork: when the load reaches its maximum limit, the lighter sections may deflect, and architectural modifications are not possible when aluminum formwork is used.

Scaffolding and Staging

• Scaffolding is a temporary structure or wooden, steel, or other materials providing a platform for working men to stand on while constructing, repairing, or renovating a structure.
• Staging is a more substantial framework progressively built up as a tall building rises, and a temporary structure used to support formworks (shuttering and centering) either for slabs, beams, or columns.

Laying and Staking

• Laying and staking is the process of establishing the point of building outlines or perimeters on the ground or site where the building is to be constructed.
• It includes demolition, clearing, staking, batter boards, and establishing the exact location of the building post and walls that will rest on the ground prior to the building layout and excavation.
• Basic materials and equipment/instruments used in laying and staking: stakes, batter boards, and surveying instruments.

Principles of Plumbing

• The National Plumbing Code of the Philippines aims to ensure the qualified observance of the latest provisions of the plumbing and environmental laws.
• There are 22 basic principles of the 1999 National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.
• Principle No. 1: All premises intended for human habitation, occupancy, or use shall be provided with a supply of pure and wholesome water, neither connected with unsafe supplies nor subject to hazards of backflow or back siphonage.
• Principle No. 2: Plumbing fixtures, devices, and appurtenances shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water consistent with proper performance and cleaning.
• Principle No. 3: Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to use the minimum quantity of water consistent with proper performance and cleaning.