Cerebrum and Basal Nuclei Functions

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Questions and Answers

What are the two main divisions of the mammalian nervous system?

CNS and PNS (correct)

ANS and PNS

ENS and SNS

CNS and SNS

Which part of the nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord?

ANS

ENS

PNS

CNS (correct)

Which division of the nervous system controls involuntary functions?

Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system (correct)

Enteric nervous system

Central nervous system

Which part of the brain is especially expanded in humans and associated with higher functions like planning and reasoning?

Frontal lobes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the enteric nervous system (ENS)?

Regulate the gastrointestinal tract Signup and view all the answers

Approximately how many neurons comprise the human brain?

100 billion Signup and view all the answers

What structures constitute the limbic system?

Ring of structures on the inner border of the cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain does the limbic system encircle?

The upper part of the brain stem Signup and view all the answers

What functions is the limbic system responsible for?

Emotions, memory, and motivation Signup and view all the answers

Where is the limbic system located?

Deep within the brain Signup and view all the answers

With which other brain regions is the limbic system connected?

A number of other brain regions Signup and view all the answers

What do the basal nuclei control?

Subconscious contraction of skeletal muscles Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an action controlled by the basal nuclei?

True laughter in response to a joke Signup and view all the answers

Where are the basal nuclei located?

At the base of the forebrain Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is NOT part of the basal nuclei?

Thalamus Signup and view all the answers

Which function is associated with the basal nuclei?

Motor control Signup and view all the answers

What is the main type of neuron found in the cortex?

Pyramidal neuron Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is released by pyramidal neurons?

Glutamate Signup and view all the answers

What role does the limbic system play in the brain?

Promoting emotions and memory Signup and view all the answers

Which region is NOT considered part of the limbic system?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the cortex in a brain affected by Alzheimer's Disease?

It shrivels up Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is critical to the formation of new memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is dementia?

Loss of cognitive ability Signup and view all the answers

What type of cell causes inhibition in the cortex?

Interneurons Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the adult brain integrates incoming and outgoing nerve impulses?

Cerebral cortex Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the basal ganglia?

Helps coordinate slow, sustained movements Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in the brain relays most sensory information to the cerebral cortex?

Thalamus Signup and view all the answers

What homeostatic function is NOT controlled by the hypothalamus?

Muscle coordination Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is known to play a role in consciousness?

Brain stem Signup and view all the answers

What primarily contributes to muscle tone, posture, and balance?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

Where is the 1º auditory area located?

Superior part of the temporal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What are the folds in the cerebral cortex called?

Gyri Signup and view all the answers

Which neurons are particularly lost in Alzheimer's disease?

Neurons that produce acetylcholine Signup and view all the answers

What are intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles composed of in Alzheimer's disease?

Filaments of a phosphorylated form of Tau Signup and view all the answers

Which therapeutic option is currently used to replace acetylcholine in Alzheimer's disease treatment?

Ach esterase inhibitors Signup and view all the answers

Which drugs are examples of Ach esterase inhibitors used in Alzheimer's disease?

Donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes generalized epilepsy from partial and absence epilepsy?

Complete cerebral cortex involvement Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism is NOT one of the main actions of current antiepileptic drugs?

Blocking monoamine oxidase enzymes Signup and view all the answers

What are the major antiepileptic drugs in current use?

Carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproate, ethosuximide, benzodiazepines Signup and view all the answers

If antiepileptic drugs are ineffective, what is the alternative treatment option?

Surgical resection of the affected cortex part Signup and view all the answers

Which areas, besides the outer surfaces of the gyri, contain gray matter in the cerebrum?

Cortex and basal nuclei Signup and view all the answers

What role do the basal nuclei NOT play in the body?

Processing visual information Signup and view all the answers

How many basal nuclei are mentioned that help in movement regulation?

Three Signup and view all the answers

Where are the basal nuclei located within the cerebrum?

Deep in the cortex Signup and view all the answers

Which two diseases are associated with the basal nuclei according to the text?

Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease Signup and view all the answers

What does cognition include?

Memory, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions Signup and view all the answers

What is dementia characterized by?

Loss of cognitive ability Signup and view all the answers

In Alzheimer's Disease (AD), where does neuronal death occur specifically?

Hippocampus and basal forebrain Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of Alzheimer's Disease at its end stage?

Brain shows dramatic shrinkage Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about Alzheimer's Disease is correct?

It is always fatal and there is no known cure or successful therapy Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is considered a positive symptom of schizophrenia?

Disorganised speech Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter alterations are implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia?

Dopamine, Glutamate, GABA Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is classified as a thrombolytic in stroke management?

Tissue plasminogen activator (Alteplase) Signup and view all the answers

What is the functional consequence of a cerebrovascular accident (CVA) dependent upon?

Part of the brain in which the CVA occurs Signup and view all the answers

What class of drugs are used predominantly to treat schizophrenia?

Antipsychotics Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is affected by deficits in cognitive processes related to schizophrenia?

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medication is Haloperidol?

Antipsychotic Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a negative symptom of schizophrenia?

Reduced expression of emotion Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The Cerebrum

The cerebrum consists of the cortex, basal nuclei, and other structures.
The basal nuclei are involved in initiating and terminating movements, suppressing unwanted movements, and regulating muscle tone.
The basal nuclei are affected in diseases such as Parkinson's and Huntington's.

Histology of the Cerebrum

The cerebrum has a layered structure, with the surface layer separated from the pia mater.
The main type of neuron in the cortex is the pyramidal neuron, which releases glutamate and causes excitation.
Interneurons, which release GABA and cause inhibition, are also found in the cortex.
The networks of pyramidal neurons and interneurons regulate cortical function.

The Limbic System

The limbic system is a functional system composed of parts of the cerebral cortex, diencephalon, and midbrain.
The main regions of the limbic system include the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and fornix.
The limbic system is involved in emotions, memory, and motivation, and is often referred to as the "emotional brain".
The limbic system is affected in mental illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by neuronal death, leading to dementia.
The disease affects the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and basal forebrain, leading to cognitive decline and memory loss.
The brain shows dramatic shrinkage in the end stage of the disease, and there is no known cure or successful therapy.

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

The nervous system has two divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS.
The CNS includes the somatic nervous system (SNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS), and enteric nervous system (ENS).

The Human Brain

The human brain is composed of approximately 100 billion neurons and 10 trillion neuroglia.
The brain is responsible for emotions, solving equations, reading, and breathing, and is characterized by a high ratio of brain to body size.
The frontal lobes of the brain are associated with higher executive functions such as self-control, planning, and abstract thought.

The Limbic System

The limbic system is a ring of structures on the inner border of the cerebrum and floor of the diencephalon.
The limbic system is responsible for emotions, memory, and motivation, and is connected to other brain regions.

Brain Diagram

The brain diagram shows various structures, including the longitudinal fissure, septum pellucidum, internal capsule, insula, thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
The basal nuclei are located deep within the brain and are important for motor control, learning, and cognition.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by neuronal death, leading to dementia.
The disease affects the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and basal forebrain, leading to cognitive decline and memory loss.
The brain shows dramatic shrinkage in the end stage of the disease, and there is no known cure or successful therapy.

Pathological Features of AD

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the loss of neurons, particularly those that produce acetylcholine.
The disease is also characterized by extracellular amyloid plaques and intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles.
The exact causes of Alzheimer's disease are still not fully understood.

Current Therapeutic Options for AD

Current therapeutic options for Alzheimer's disease include replacing acetylcholine, which can help to improve cognitive function.
Strategies to target beta-amyloid have failed so far.

Seizures and Epilepsy

Seizures result from large groups of neurons being active together and discharging in high-frequency patterns.
Epilepsy is the condition associated with the repeated occurrence of seizures.
The causes of epilepsy include tumors, trauma, infection, vascular disease, and many unknown cases.

Drug Therapy in Epilepsy

Current antiepileptic drugs act by three main mechanisms: reducing electrical excitability, enhancing GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition, and inhibiting T-type calcium channels.
Newer drugs act by other mechanisms, largely yet to be elucidated.

The Major Antiepileptic Drugs

The main drugs in current use are carbamazepine, phenytoin, valproate, ethosuximide, and benzodiazepines.
If drugs do not work, surgical resection of the affected part of the cortex may be necessary.

Brain Organization

The major parts of the adult brain are the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and brain stem.
The cerebral cortex receives sensory information, sends messages to move skeletal muscles, integrates incoming and outgoing nerve impulses, and performs activities such as thinking, learning, and remembering.

The Cerebrum

The cerebral cortex is the "seat of our intelligence" and is responsible for reading, writing, speaking, remembering, and planning.
The cerebrum consists of an outer cerebral cortex, an internal region of cerebral white matter, and gray matter nuclei deep within the white matter.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is characterized by a loss of contact with reality, and a disruption of thought, perception, mood, and movement.
The condition is a type of psychosis, and drugs used to treat it are called antipsychotics.

Schizophrenia: Drug Therapy

Antipsychotic drugs, also known as neuroleptic drugs or major tranquillizers, are used to treat schizophrenia.
These drugs are predominantly dopamine receptor antagonists, and may also act on other targets.

Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia

The core features of schizophrenia include deficits in cognitive processes mediated by the circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Alterations in dopamine, glutamate, and GABA neurotransmission are implicated in the disease.

Cerebrovascular Accidents (Stroke)

Cerebrovascular accidents, or stroke, are sudden and severe losses of central nervous system function due to decreased blood flow to part of the brain.
The functional consequence of a stroke is dependent on the part of the brain affected.

Stroke Management: Pharmacological

Thrombolytic, anticoagulant, antiplatelet, and hypertensive therapies are used to manage stroke.
Treatment of hyperlipidemia is also important.

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Description

This quiz covers the structure and functions of the cerebrum, including the basal nuclei and their roles in movement and muscle tone regulation.