Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the central nervous system (CNS)?
What is the primary function of the central nervous system (CNS)?
Which area is responsible for speech comprehension?
Which area is responsible for speech comprehension?
Which layer of the meninges is the outermost and most protective?
Which layer of the meninges is the outermost and most protective?
What is the role of myelin in the nervous system?
What is the role of myelin in the nervous system?
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What structure connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres?
What structure connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres?
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Which part of the CNS is primarily responsible for motor coordination and equilibrium balance?
Which part of the CNS is primarily responsible for motor coordination and equilibrium balance?
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Which of the following structures is NOT part of the brainstem?
Which of the following structures is NOT part of the brainstem?
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What is the primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex?
What is the primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex?
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What is the primary function of somatic fibers?
What is the primary function of somatic fibers?
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Which cranial nerve is responsible for smell?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for smell?
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What type of cranial nerve is the Vagus nerve?
What type of cranial nerve is the Vagus nerve?
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What role do autonomic fibers primarily serve?
What role do autonomic fibers primarily serve?
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At what stage do infants gain motor control according to the myelination process?
At what stage do infants gain motor control according to the myelination process?
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What is a sign of CNS dysfunction in infants?
What is a sign of CNS dysfunction in infants?
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As a person ages, what happens to the volume of the brain?
As a person ages, what happens to the volume of the brain?
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Which cranial nerve allows for lateral movement of the eye?
Which cranial nerve allows for lateral movement of the eye?
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What decreases in older adults, leading to slower reaction times?
What decreases in older adults, leading to slower reaction times?
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What sensory function is associated with the Glossopharyngeal nerve?
What sensory function is associated with the Glossopharyngeal nerve?
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Which cranial nerve is NOT involved in mixed functions?
Which cranial nerve is NOT involved in mixed functions?
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Which number indicates the lumbar spinal nerves in the human body?
Which number indicates the lumbar spinal nerves in the human body?
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What is the primary function of the facial nerve?
What is the primary function of the facial nerve?
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What does the mnemonic FACE stand for in the recognition of stroke symptoms?
What does the mnemonic FACE stand for in the recognition of stroke symptoms?
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Which of the following is NOT a modifiable risk factor for stroke?
Which of the following is NOT a modifiable risk factor for stroke?
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For which group is the risk of stroke generally higher than for women?
For which group is the risk of stroke generally higher than for women?
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What is the first action recommended when someone shows symptoms of a TIA?
What is the first action recommended when someone shows symptoms of a TIA?
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Which of the following nonmodifiable risk factors is mentioned as contributing to a higher prevalence of stroke?
Which of the following nonmodifiable risk factors is mentioned as contributing to a higher prevalence of stroke?
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Which medical condition significantly contributes to the risk of non–pregnancy-related ischemic stroke in women?
Which medical condition significantly contributes to the risk of non–pregnancy-related ischemic stroke in women?
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Which of the following is NOT included as a risk factor for stroke?
Which of the following is NOT included as a risk factor for stroke?
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Which of the following lifestyle changes is recommended for stroke prevention?
Which of the following lifestyle changes is recommended for stroke prevention?
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What symptom might indicate a potential stroke that requires immediate medical attention?
What symptom might indicate a potential stroke that requires immediate medical attention?
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Which of the following factors has NOT been associated with a higher risk for stroke among certain ethnic groups?
Which of the following factors has NOT been associated with a higher risk for stroke among certain ethnic groups?
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Which of the following health history questions would help assess potential stroke risk?
Which of the following health history questions would help assess potential stroke risk?
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What is the primary purpose of the frontal lobe?
What is the primary purpose of the frontal lobe?
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What acronym can be used to remember the immediate steps to take in stroke recognition?
What acronym can be used to remember the immediate steps to take in stroke recognition?
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Damage to which area of the brain primarily affects the ability to produce language?
Damage to which area of the brain primarily affects the ability to produce language?
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What is the relationship between age and stroke risk?
What is the relationship between age and stroke risk?
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Which part of the brain acts as the main relay station for sensory pathways?
Which part of the brain acts as the main relay station for sensory pathways?
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Which condition is NOT classified as a cardiac condition related to stroke risk?
Which condition is NOT classified as a cardiac condition related to stroke risk?
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Which part of the central nervous system is primarily responsible for coordinating motor movements?
Which part of the central nervous system is primarily responsible for coordinating motor movements?
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What is the unique characteristic of crossed representation in the nervous system?
What is the unique characteristic of crossed representation in the nervous system?
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What type of sensations does the spinothalamic tract primarily transmit?
What type of sensations does the spinothalamic tract primarily transmit?
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Where is the primary auditory reception center located in the brain?
Where is the primary auditory reception center located in the brain?
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What results when Wernicke’s area is damaged in the dominant hemisphere?
What results when Wernicke’s area is damaged in the dominant hemisphere?
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The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating which of the following functions?
The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating which of the following functions?
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What is primarily housed in the basal ganglia?
What is primarily housed in the basal ganglia?
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Which area of the brain would most likely be damaged if a person cannot perceive sensations?
Which area of the brain would most likely be damaged if a person cannot perceive sensations?
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Which structure is NOT part of the brainstem?
Which structure is NOT part of the brainstem?
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What does paresis refer to in neurological terms?
What does paresis refer to in neurological terms?
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In which part of the brain do pyramidal decussation occur?
In which part of the brain do pyramidal decussation occur?
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How does the cerebrospinal fluid travel through the spinal cord?
How does the cerebrospinal fluid travel through the spinal cord?
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Which of the following could be considered an aura before a seizure?
Which of the following could be considered an aura before a seizure?
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Dysarthria refers to which of the following problems?
Dysarthria refers to which of the following problems?
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What might trigger seizures in some individuals?
What might trigger seizures in some individuals?
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What describes dysphagia?
What describes dysphagia?
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Which condition involves an inability to control the range of motion of the muscles?
Which condition involves an inability to control the range of motion of the muscles?
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What is an example of an environmental hazard that could affect cognitive development in children?
What is an example of an environmental hazard that could affect cognitive development in children?
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Which of the following symptoms is indicative of an early sign of muscular dystrophy in children?
Which of the following symptoms is indicative of an early sign of muscular dystrophy in children?
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What is the significance of the postictal phase following a seizure?
What is the significance of the postictal phase following a seizure?
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What is the primary sensory function of the dorsal columns?
What is the primary sensory function of the dorsal columns?
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What does the term 'paraesthesia' refer to?
What does the term 'paraesthesia' refer to?
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Where do sensory fibers from the dorsal columns cross to the opposite side of the body?
Where do sensory fibers from the dorsal columns cross to the opposite side of the body?
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What is primarily assessed when asking about environmental and occupational hazards?
What is primarily assessed when asking about environmental and occupational hazards?
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Which cortex is responsible for full interpretation of sensory messages?
Which cortex is responsible for full interpretation of sensory messages?
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Which of the following statements best defines tremors?
Which of the following statements best defines tremors?
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Which aspect of a child's development is monitored through reflexes?
Which aspect of a child's development is monitored through reflexes?
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What is the role of the corticospinal tract?
What is the role of the corticospinal tract?
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What might indicate that an adult is at a higher risk of falls?
What might indicate that an adult is at a higher risk of falls?
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What is a characteristic of the cortical homunculus?
What is a characteristic of the cortical homunculus?
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What does referred pain mean?
What does referred pain mean?
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Which system is responsible for maintaining muscle tone and controlling gross movements?
Which system is responsible for maintaining muscle tone and controlling gross movements?
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How do upper motor neurons influence lower motor neurons?
How do upper motor neurons influence lower motor neurons?
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Which of the following is an example of an upper motor neuron disease?
Which of the following is an example of an upper motor neuron disease?
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Where are the lower motor neurons predominantly located?
Where are the lower motor neurons predominantly located?
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What kind of movements does the cerebellar system primarily coordinate?
What kind of movements does the cerebellar system primarily coordinate?
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What structure is primarily responsible for the exchange of sensory and motor information?
What structure is primarily responsible for the exchange of sensory and motor information?
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How do proprioceptors function in the sensory pathway?
How do proprioceptors function in the sensory pathway?
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What do the extrapyramidal tracts primarily regulate?
What do the extrapyramidal tracts primarily regulate?
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What is a common physical change observed in older adults as they age?
What is a common physical change observed in older adults as they age?
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What is the primary risk associated with older adults getting up too quickly?
What is the primary risk associated with older adults getting up too quickly?
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Which demographic is shown to have a higher rate of strokes as compared to the general population?
Which demographic is shown to have a higher rate of strokes as compared to the general population?
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What is the leading cause of adult disability in Canada?
What is the leading cause of adult disability in Canada?
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Which of the following is NOT a common symptom of stroke?
Which of the following is NOT a common symptom of stroke?
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What should not be ignored after experiencing symptoms that disappear within an hour?
What should not be ignored after experiencing symptoms that disappear within an hour?
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What contributes significantly to the elevated death rate due to strokes in certain populations?
What contributes significantly to the elevated death rate due to strokes in certain populations?
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Which type of stroke is the most common?
Which type of stroke is the most common?
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What is a critical factor in the initial assessment of a stroke?
What is a critical factor in the initial assessment of a stroke?
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How does socioeconomic status influence stroke risk?
How does socioeconomic status influence stroke risk?
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Which of the following describes a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
Which of the following describes a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
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What often contributes to a lack of recognition of stroke symptoms among Canadians?
What often contributes to a lack of recognition of stroke symptoms among Canadians?
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What health issue is linked to racism and impacts stroke risk among specific populations?
What health issue is linked to racism and impacts stroke risk among specific populations?
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What should be assessed when testing the muscles of mastication?
What should be assessed when testing the muscles of mastication?
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What physical characteristic may older adults display while walking, indicating cautiousness?
What physical characteristic may older adults display while walking, indicating cautiousness?
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Which cranial nerve is primarily involved in the corneal reflex?
Which cranial nerve is primarily involved in the corneal reflex?
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What indicates decreased strength of the muscles of facial expression?
What indicates decreased strength of the muscles of facial expression?
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Which action tests cranial nerves IX and X?
Which action tests cranial nerves IX and X?
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What does the presence of atrophy in a muscle indicate?
What does the presence of atrophy in a muscle indicate?
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Which of the following best describes the normal range of findings for the tongue during evaluation?
Which of the following best describes the normal range of findings for the tongue during evaluation?
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What symptom suggests a dysfunction in cranial nerve VII?
What symptom suggests a dysfunction in cranial nerve VII?
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Which test assesses the sensory function of the trigeminal nerve?
Which test assesses the sensory function of the trigeminal nerve?
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What is a common finding in individuals who have worn contact lenses related to the corneal reflex?
What is a common finding in individuals who have worn contact lenses related to the corneal reflex?
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Which assessment technique is used to evaluate cranial nerve XI?
Which assessment technique is used to evaluate cranial nerve XI?
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What does the presence of nasal twang in a patient's voice indicate?
What does the presence of nasal twang in a patient's voice indicate?
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What does normal muscle tone demonstrate when a passive ROM test is conducted?
What does normal muscle tone demonstrate when a passive ROM test is conducted?
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Which of the following conditions can result in facial muscle weakness?
Which of the following conditions can result in facial muscle weakness?
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How can dizziness impact a person's ability to drive?
How can dizziness impact a person's ability to drive?
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What is micturition syncope?
What is micturition syncope?
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Which of the following changes may indicate a decline in cognitive function?
Which of the following changes may indicate a decline in cognitive function?
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What factors can exacerbate tremors experienced by a patient?
What factors can exacerbate tremors experienced by a patient?
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What is a critical finding that necessitates immediate medical attention?
What is a critical finding that necessitates immediate medical attention?
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Which cranial nerves are involved in assessing eye movement?
Which cranial nerves are involved in assessing eye movement?
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Which condition is associated with a sudden and severe headache?
Which condition is associated with a sudden and severe headache?
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What should be done when a patient shows signs of neurological dysfunction?
What should be done when a patient shows signs of neurological dysfunction?
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How should olfactory nerve function be evaluated?
How should olfactory nerve function be evaluated?
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What might unilateral loss of smell indicate?
What might unilateral loss of smell indicate?
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What is the recommended action if a patient reports sudden vision changes?
What is the recommended action if a patient reports sudden vision changes?
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What does increased intracranial pressure often cause regarding pupil response?
What does increased intracranial pressure often cause regarding pupil response?
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What is a common finding in senile tremor?
What is a common finding in senile tremor?
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What is the expected finding when assessing joint resistance during movement?
What is the expected finding when assessing joint resistance during movement?
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What does an inability to tandem walk indicate?
What does an inability to tandem walk indicate?
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Which of the following demonstrates an abnormal finding in the Romberg Test?
Which of the following demonstrates an abnormal finding in the Romberg Test?
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What indicates that a patient is fully alert?
What indicates that a patient is fully alert?
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What type of movement is described as dysdiadochokinesia?
What type of movement is described as dysdiadochokinesia?
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What is the first method to increase stimulation for a patient who is not fully alert?
What is the first method to increase stimulation for a patient who is not fully alert?
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Which command can be used to check voluntary movement of the patient's extremities?
Which command can be used to check voluntary movement of the patient's extremities?
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Which test assesses lower extremity coordination by running the heel down the opposite shin?
Which test assesses lower extremity coordination by running the heel down the opposite shin?
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Which of the following is NOT a method to assess a patient's response to stimuli?
Which of the following is NOT a method to assess a patient's response to stimuli?
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In a healthy patient, what should be observed during the finger-to-nose test?
In a healthy patient, what should be observed during the finger-to-nose test?
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Which finding indicates abnormal gait during a walking test?
Which finding indicates abnormal gait during a walking test?
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What facial movements should be noted to assess cranial nerve VII?
What facial movements should be noted to assess cranial nerve VII?
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What role do lower motor neurons play in the nervous system?
What role do lower motor neurons play in the nervous system?
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Which of the following is not classified as a lower motor neuron disease?
Which of the following is not classified as a lower motor neuron disease?
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What does the presence of spasticity indicate during a movement assessment?
What does the presence of spasticity indicate during a movement assessment?
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What are the major motor pathways mentioned?
What are the major motor pathways mentioned?
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How should a normal finding appear during rapid alternating movements?
How should a normal finding appear during rapid alternating movements?
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Which cranial nerves are involved in supplying the head and neck?
Which cranial nerves are involved in supplying the head and neck?
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Which condition is associated with an absence of proprioception while performing a Romberg Test?
Which condition is associated with an absence of proprioception while performing a Romberg Test?
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What characterizes deep tendon reflexes?
What characterizes deep tendon reflexes?
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What does a positive finding for involuntary movements indicate?
What does a positive finding for involuntary movements indicate?
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What is a common symptom that may accompany an inability to perform a shallow knee bend?
What is a common symptom that may accompany an inability to perform a shallow knee bend?
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Where do peripheral nerves carry sensory and motor information?
Where do peripheral nerves carry sensory and motor information?
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Which of the following is NOT a component of the deep tendon reflex?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the deep tendon reflex?
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What is often tested to assess skin sensitivity in a patient?
What is often tested to assess skin sensitivity in a patient?
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What does a reflex arc consist of?
What does a reflex arc consist of?
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What is the function of spinal nerves in the body?
What is the function of spinal nerves in the body?
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Which function describes the role of the vagus nerve?
Which function describes the role of the vagus nerve?
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Which dermatomes correspond to the thumb, middle finger, and fifth finger?
Which dermatomes correspond to the thumb, middle finger, and fifth finger?
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What distinguishes somatic from autonomic nerve fibers?
What distinguishes somatic from autonomic nerve fibers?
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What happens when a tendon is tapped during a reflex test?
What happens when a tendon is tapped during a reflex test?
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Which of the following options describes the flow of the corticospinal crossed tract?
Which of the following options describes the flow of the corticospinal crossed tract?
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What does the inability to recognize a traced number or letter on the palm indicate?
What does the inability to recognize a traced number or letter on the palm indicate?
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What is the most sensitive area for two-point discrimination testing?
What is the most sensitive area for two-point discrimination testing?
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Which statement about extinction testing is accurate?
Which statement about extinction testing is accurate?
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What should be observed to obtain an adequate response during deep tendon reflex testing?
What should be observed to obtain an adequate response during deep tendon reflex testing?
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How are reflex responses graded?
How are reflex responses graded?
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What tests should be administered when a patient displays neurological symptoms?
What tests should be administered when a patient displays neurological symptoms?
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How should the sensory testing be conducted to avoid suggestion?
How should the sensory testing be conducted to avoid suggestion?
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What could cause hyperreflexia during a reflex test?
What could cause hyperreflexia during a reflex test?
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If a patient demonstrates reduced reflex functioning, what does this indicate?
If a patient demonstrates reduced reflex functioning, what does this indicate?
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What is the purpose of letting at least 2 seconds elapse between each stimulus during pain testing?
What is the purpose of letting at least 2 seconds elapse between each stimulus during pain testing?
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Which muscle response indicates a normal biceps reflex?
Which muscle response indicates a normal biceps reflex?
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Which of the following sensations is assessed using a tuning fork?
Which of the following sensations is assessed using a tuning fork?
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What does hyperalgesia refer to?
What does hyperalgesia refer to?
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What technique can enhance a reflex response during testing?
What technique can enhance a reflex response during testing?
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What procedure is used to test the ability to recognize an object through touch?
What procedure is used to test the ability to recognize an object through touch?
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When testing the triceps reflex, where should the hammer strike?
When testing the triceps reflex, where should the hammer strike?
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Which reflex is specifically associated with segments L2 to L4?
Which reflex is specifically associated with segments L2 to L4?
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To effectively map decreased sensation, which approach should be taken?
To effectively map decreased sensation, which approach should be taken?
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What element is critical to accurately assess the stretch reflex?
What element is critical to accurately assess the stretch reflex?
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How should temperature sensation testing be conducted?
How should temperature sensation testing be conducted?
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What does clonus indicate during a reflex assessment?
What does clonus indicate during a reflex assessment?
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What is the primary purpose of comparing sensations on symmetrical parts of the body?
What is the primary purpose of comparing sensations on symmetrical parts of the body?
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Where is loss of vibration sense often first detected in peripheral neuropathy?
Where is loss of vibration sense often first detected in peripheral neuropathy?
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How is sensation typically localized with a sensory cortex lesion?
How is sensation typically localized with a sensory cortex lesion?
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When assessing position sense, how should the examination be conducted?
When assessing position sense, how should the examination be conducted?
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What does a deficiency in tactile discrimination indicate?
What does a deficiency in tactile discrimination indicate?
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Which of the following conditions reflects a loss in position sense?
Which of the following conditions reflects a loss in position sense?
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What term describes the absence of pain sensation?
What term describes the absence of pain sensation?
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What reflex involves an infant extending the arm and leg on the same side where the head is turned?
What reflex involves an infant extending the arm and leg on the same side where the head is turned?
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At what age does the Babinski reflex typically begin to disappear?
At what age does the Babinski reflex typically begin to disappear?
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Which reflex is characterized by the infant demonstrating a symmetrical 'hugging' motion when startled?
Which reflex is characterized by the infant demonstrating a symmetrical 'hugging' motion when startled?
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Which reflex indicates potential severe CNS injury if absent in a newborn?
Which reflex indicates potential severe CNS injury if absent in a newborn?
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When does the Tonic Neck Reflex typically decrease in infants?
When does the Tonic Neck Reflex typically decrease in infants?
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What abnormal sign is indicated by the persistence of the Moro reflex after 5 months of age?
What abnormal sign is indicated by the persistence of the Moro reflex after 5 months of age?
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What does the Placing Reflex test in infants assess?
What does the Placing Reflex test in infants assess?
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What indicates a concern when observing a child's ability to rise from a supine position?
What indicates a concern when observing a child's ability to rise from a supine position?
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At what age should children normally be able to balance on one foot for about 5 seconds?
At what age should children normally be able to balance on one foot for about 5 seconds?
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What assessment tool is recommended for screening gross and fine motor skills in children?
What assessment tool is recommended for screening gross and fine motor skills in children?
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What is the typical response of an infant when the dorsal aspect of their foot touches the underside of a table during the Placing Reflex?
What is the typical response of an infant when the dorsal aspect of their foot touches the underside of a table during the Placing Reflex?
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What movement indicates a possible lower spinal cord problem in an infant?
What movement indicates a possible lower spinal cord problem in an infant?
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Normal development in children includes the ability to hop by what age?
Normal development in children includes the ability to hop by what age?
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At what age can children typically start to have their sensory systems tested similarly to adults?
At what age can children typically start to have their sensory systems tested similarly to adults?
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What action indicates a normal response when testing for spasticity in infants?
What action indicates a normal response when testing for spasticity in infants?
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What is the recommended method for testing deep tendon reflexes (DTRs) in children under 5 years?
What is the recommended method for testing deep tendon reflexes (DTRs) in children under 5 years?
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At what age does purposeful release of objects typically develop in infants?
At what age does purposeful release of objects typically develop in infants?
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Which of the following conditions may lead to hyperactivity of deep tendon reflexes (DTRs)?
Which of the following conditions may lead to hyperactivity of deep tendon reflexes (DTRs)?
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What is a common sign of cerebral palsy in infants?
What is a common sign of cerebral palsy in infants?
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What are common signs of neurological deterioration that should be monitored closely in hospitalized patients?
What are common signs of neurological deterioration that should be monitored closely in hospitalized patients?
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Which reflex is assessed by brushing the infant’s cheek?
Which reflex is assessed by brushing the infant’s cheek?
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Which position indicates an abnormal finding in an infant after a breech delivery?
Which position indicates an abnormal finding in an infant after a breech delivery?
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Which reflex is often found to be absent in older adults?
Which reflex is often found to be absent in older adults?
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What should be observed at 4 months regarding head control?
What should be observed at 4 months regarding head control?
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What is a common age-related change in older adults regarding sensory perception?
What is a common age-related change in older adults regarding sensory perception?
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When does the palmar grasp reflex typically disappear?
When does the palmar grasp reflex typically disappear?
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What characteristic distinguishes senile tremors from parkinsonism tremors?
What characteristic distinguishes senile tremors from parkinsonism tremors?
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What does persistent one-hand preference in infants younger than 18 months indicate?
What does persistent one-hand preference in infants younger than 18 months indicate?
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When conducting an abbreviated neurological examination, which of the following is assessed first?
When conducting an abbreviated neurological examination, which of the following is assessed first?
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Which sensory aspect is usually not tested in children younger than 6 years?
Which sensory aspect is usually not tested in children younger than 6 years?
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What does head lag in an infant over 6 months suggest?
What does head lag in an infant over 6 months suggest?
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Which of the following indicates hyperaesthesia in an infant?
Which of the following indicates hyperaesthesia in an infant?
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In order to assess a patient's orientation, which of the following questions would be inappropriate?
In order to assess a patient's orientation, which of the following questions would be inappropriate?
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What does the Landau reflex indicate in infants when absent?
What does the Landau reflex indicate in infants when absent?
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Which of the following conditions is usually associated with a loss of the ankle jerk reflex in older adults?
Which of the following conditions is usually associated with a loss of the ankle jerk reflex in older adults?
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What sign may indicate brain damage in an infant?
What sign may indicate brain damage in an infant?
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What sensory changes can be expected in older adults regarding pain and light touch?
What sensory changes can be expected in older adults regarding pain and light touch?
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The sucking reflex is strongest in which age range?
The sucking reflex is strongest in which age range?
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How should you approach testing deep tendon reflexes in older adults who find it challenging to relax?
How should you approach testing deep tendon reflexes in older adults who find it challenging to relax?
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During a sensory examination of a newborn, how should the infant typically respond to a strong stimulus?
During a sensory examination of a newborn, how should the infant typically respond to a strong stimulus?
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What is the expected response when testing the Achilles reflex?
What is the expected response when testing the Achilles reflex?
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Which position is appropriate for testing the clonus reflex?
Which position is appropriate for testing the clonus reflex?
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A positive Babinski sign is indicated by which response?
A positive Babinski sign is indicated by which response?
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Which reflex is not routinely tested in adults?
Which reflex is not routinely tested in adults?
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What response indicates a problem in the pyramidal tract when assessing superficial reflexes?
What response indicates a problem in the pyramidal tract when assessing superficial reflexes?
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The normal response to an abdominal reflex test should show what?
The normal response to an abdominal reflex test should show what?
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What happens to superficial reflexes in cases of upper motor neuron lesions?
What happens to superficial reflexes in cases of upper motor neuron lesions?
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How can you confirm the proper functioning of cranial nerves in an infant?
How can you confirm the proper functioning of cranial nerves in an infant?
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Which developmental milestone is typically observed by 4 months of age?
Which developmental milestone is typically observed by 4 months of age?
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How is muscle tone assessed in infants during a neurological examination?
How is muscle tone assessed in infants during a neurological examination?
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What characterizes a normal response when testing for clonus?
What characterizes a normal response when testing for clonus?
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What is a sign of CNS damage in infants regarding their cry?
What is a sign of CNS damage in infants regarding their cry?
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At what age should you expect a baby to recognize their parent's face?
At what age should you expect a baby to recognize their parent's face?
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What would indicate a delay in motor activity during an infant's exam?
What would indicate a delay in motor activity during an infant's exam?
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Study Notes
Nervous System Structure and Function
- Nervous System Division: The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
- CNS Components: The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord.
- PNS Components: The PNS includes cranial nerves (12 pairs), spinal nerves (31 pairs), and their branches.
- PNS Functions: The PNS transmits sensory (afferent) messages to the CNS, motor (efferent) messages from the CNS to muscles and glands, and autonomic messages regulating internal organs and blood vessels.
- Meninges: Protective membranes (dura, arachnoid, pia mater) surrounding the CNS. Cerebrospinal fluid also protects CNS.
Cerebral Cortex
- Structure: The outermost layer of the cerebrum, composed of nerve cell bodies without myelin ("grey matter"). Myelin increases nerve impulse speed.
- Function (General): Centre for higher functions: thought, memory, reasoning, sensation, and voluntary movement.
- Hemispheric Dominance: Left hemisphere dominates in most right-handers and many left-handers.
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Lobes and Functions:
- Frontal Lobe: Personality, behavior, emotions, intellectual functions.
- Precentral Gyrus: Initiates voluntary movement.
- Parietal Lobe: Primary sensory centre (postcentral gyrus).
- Occipital Lobe: Primary visual receptor centre.
- Temporal Lobe: Primary auditory reception, taste, smell, Wernicke's area (language comprehension). Damage causes receptive aphasia (hearing without meaning). Broca's area (motor speech) in frontal lobe; damage causes expressive aphasia (understanding with garbled speech).
- Damage Effects: Loss of function (motor weakness, paralysis, sensory loss, language impairment) due to blood supply interruption (occluded artery, bleeding, vasospasm).
Basal Ganglia
- Location: Deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
- Function: Subcortical associated motor system. Controls automatic associated movements (e.g., arm swing during walking).
Thalamus
- Function: Main relay station for sensory pathways from spinal cord and brainstem to cerebrum.
Hypothalamus
- Function: Major control center for vital functions like temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, sleep, pituitary gland regulation, autonomic nervous system and emotional response.
Cerebellum
- Location: Under the occipital lobe.
- Function: Coordinates voluntary movements, maintains equilibrium, and muscle tone; does not initiate movement but refines and smoothes it.
Brainstem
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Structure: Central core of the brain, primarily nerve fibers.
- Midbrain: Anterior, basic tubular structure, merges into thalamus and hypothalamus, contains many motor neurons and tracts.
- Pons: Enlarged area with ascending and descending fiber tracts.
- Medulla: Continuation of spinal cord, contains ascending and descending fiber tracts connecting brain and spinal cord, controls vital autonomic centers (respiratory, cardiac, gastrointestinal functions), and nuclei for cranial nerves VIII–XII (Pyramidal decussation).
Spinal Cord
- Structure: Long cylindrical structure of nervous tissue, occupying upper two-thirds of vertebral canal from medulla to lumbar vertebrae L1/L2.
- Function: Main pathway for ascending and descending fiber tracts connecting brain and spinal nerves; mediates reflexes. Grey matter in butterfly shape with anterior and posterior "horns," containing nerve cell bodies.
Pathways of the CNS
- Crossed Representation: Left cerebral cortex interacts with right body, and vice versa.
Sensory Pathways
- Sensory Receptors: Extensive network in skin, mucous membranes, muscles, tendons, and viscera. Monitor conscious sensations, internal organ functions, body positions, and reflexes.
- Spinothalamic Tract: Transmits pain, temperature, and crude/light touch sensations.
- Posterior (Dorsal) Columns: Conduct sensations of position, vibration, and finely localized touch. (Proprioception, vibration, stereognosis)
Motor Pathways
- Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tract: Initiates voluntary movements, especially skilled, discrete movements. Originates in motor cortex.
- Extrapyramidal Tracts: Older motor system outside pyramidal tract (muscle tone maintenance, gross automatic movements, such as walking).
- Cerebellar System: Coordinates movement, maintains equilibrium and posture by receiving position and motor messages; subconscious level.
Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
- Upper Motor Neurons: Located entirely within the CNS; influence lower motor neurons; examples include corticospinal, corticobulbar, and extrapyramidal tracts: cerebral vascular accidents, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis.
- Lower Motor Neurons: Located mostly in the PNS, cell body in spinal cord, nerve fiber extends to muscle, the final common pathway
Peripheral Nervous System
- Nerves: Bundles of fibers outside the CNS. Carry input (sensory) and output (motor).
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Reflex Arc: Basic defense mechanisms; involuntary reactions for painful stimuli—deep tendon, superficial, visceral, pathological.
- Components: Sensory nerve (afferent), synapse in spinal cord, motor nerve (efferent), neuromuscular junction, competent muscle.
- Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs, mostly supply head and neck.
- Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs, mixed nerves (sensory and motor fibers). Originate from the length of the spinal cord. Innervate body (each nerve segments body part-dermatome).
- Somatic & Autonomic Fibers: Somatic: skeletal muscles; Autonomic: smooth muscles, glands, heart; mediates unconscious activity (maintaining homeostasis).
Developmental Considerations
- Infants: Neurological systems are not fully developed at birth, motor, and sensory systems are rudimentary. Development proceeds in a cephalocaudal (head to tail) and proximal-to-distal (center to extremities) order. Primitive reflexes present at birth normally fade with development.
- Older Adults: Aging causes atrophy, neuron loss, decrease in brain weight and volume, thinning cortex, reduced subcortical structures, and ventricular enlargement. Slowed nerve conduction, decreased sensation (touch, pain, taste, smell). Motor system showing slowing, decrease in muscle bulk and strength. Stroke risk increased.
Social Determinants of Health Considerations
- Socioeconomic status: Stroke more prevalent in socioeconomically disadvantaged populations, impacting short/long-term outcomes.
- Cultural/Ethnic background: Indigenous people, people of African or South Asian descent, demonstrate higher stroke death rates due to underlying factors like higher hypertension and diabetes.
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Test your knowledge on the central nervous system with this quiz. Questions cover various aspects including brain structures, functions, and components of the CNS. Perfect for students studying biology or neuroscience.
