Cell Structures & Genetics

Cell Functions

• Cells are the fundamental units of life in all living organisms

Types of Cells

• Prokaryotic cells are simple, like bacteria, lacking a nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are complex, such as plant and animal cells, containing a nucleus

Eukaryotic Cell Key Structures

• Nucleus contains DNA and acts as the control center
• Mitochondria are the cell's powerhouses, producing ATP via cellular respiration
• Rough ER has ribosomes for making proteins, while smooth ER synthesizes lipids
• Golgi apparatus packages proteins and lipids for transport
• Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes to break down waste
• Cell membrane controls substance entry/exit, maintaining balance (homeostasis)
• Chloroplasts(in plant cells) facilitate photosynthesis using sunlight

Genetics: Inheritance and DNA

• Genetics is the study of heredity, or how traits pass between generations

DNA and Genes

• DNA contains all instructions for building and maintaining an organism and is comprised of nucleotides
• Genes are segments of DNA coding for specific proteins/ traits

Alleles Definition

• Dominant alleles are stronger and expressed when inherited from either parent
• Recessive alleles are weaker and require two copies (from each parent) to be expressed

Punnett Square

• Punnett squares predict genetic outcomes when organisms reproduce by showing allele combinations

Photosynthesis

• Plants use sunlight, water, and CO2 in chloroplasts to make glucose and oxygen via photosynthesis
• The equation for photosynthesis is 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Cellular Respiration

• Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria, breaking down glucose with oxygen to release energy (ATP)
• The equation for cellular respiration is C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)

Mitosis

• Eukaryotic cells divide into two identical daughter cells for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction
• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane breaks down, spindle fibers form
• Metaphase: Chromosomes align
• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate
• Telophase: New nuclear membranes form, chromosomes uncoil
• Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides, separating daughter cells
• Mitosis outcome is two identical diploid cells

Meiosis

• Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half, creating four non-identical gametes (sex cells)
• Outcome includes four non-identical haploid cells (gametes), crucial for sexual reproduction

Human Body Systems

• The human body has systems that work together to function

Key Systems

• The circulatory system (heart, blood, vessels) transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste
• The respiratory system (lungs, airways) facilitates breathing and gas exchange
• The digestive system (stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas) breaks down food for nutrient absorption
• The nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves) controls body functions and allows environmental response

Ecology

• Ecology studies organism interactions with each other and their environment

Core Ecological Concepts

• An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in their environment
• A food chain is a sequence of organisms where each eats the preceding one
• Producers (plants) make their own food through photosynthesis
• Consumers (animals) eat other organisms
• Decomposers (fungi, bacteria) break down dead organisms, recycling nutrients

Evolution and Natural Selection

• Evolution is change over time and natural selection is the mechanism of evolution

Evolution key concepts

• Variation within a population is essential
• Survival of the fittest means those best suited to their environment reproduce more
• Adaptation improves population suitability over generations

Microorganisms:

• Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, and fungi

Types of Microorganisms:

• Bacteria: Single-celled, helpful (digestion) or harmful (diseases)
• Viruses: Require a host cell to reproduce and aren't technically living
• Fungi: Break down organic matter, like molds and yeasts

Matter composition

• Matter has mass and volume, and all matter is comprised of atoms

Atoms Consist Of

• Protons (positive charge) are found in the nucleus
• Neutrons (neutral charge) are found in the nucleus
• Electrons (negative charge) orbit the nucleus in shells

Elements

• Electron shells are regions where electrons orbit the nucleus
• Atomic number: # of protons, defining an element's identity
• Mass number: # of protons + # of neutrons

Periodic Table:

• Rows (Periods): Horizontal, properties change gradually across the row
• Columns (Groups): Vertical, elements share chemical properties
• Metals: Left side, conduct heat/electricity (iron, copper)
• Nonmetals: Right side, poor conductors, form gases (oxygen, nitrogen)
• Metalloids: Properties of both (silicon)

Types of Chemical Bonds:

• Covalent: Atoms share electrons (H₂O)
• Ionic: One atom gives e- to another, creating ions. Occurs between metals and non-metals
• Metallic: Electrons shared freely among many atoms, for conductivity and malleability

Chemical Reactions

• Reactions involve reactants changing into products via bond breaking and forming

Types of Chemical Reactions:

• Synthesis: Two or more substances combine (2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O)
• Decomposition: A complex substance breaks down (2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂)
• Single Replacement: One element replaces another (Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂)
• Double Replacement: Two compounds exchange ions (AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO₃)
• Combustion: Substance reacts with oxygen, producing energy (CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O)

Chemical Equations:

• Balancing chemical equations keep number of atoms on both sides equal

Acids, Bases, and pH:

• Acids and bases have properties in water

Acids:

• Acids release H⁺ ions, pH < 7. Examples are HCl and H₂SO₄

Bases:

• Bases release OH⁻ ions, pH > 7. Examples are NaOH and NH₃

Neutral Solutions:

• Neutral Solution: pH of 7 (pure water)

pH:

• The pH scale ranges from 0-14, measuring acidity/basicity
• pH < 7 is an acid
• pH = 7 is neutral
• pH > 7 is basic (alkaline)

Mole:

• Mole is a quantity of 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro's number)

Molarity(M):

• Molarity measures concentration (moles of solute / liters of solution)

States of Matter:

• Matter: Exists as solid, liquid, gas

Solid properties

• Solid: Fixed shape/volume, molecules packed closely

Liquid properties

• Liquid: Fixed volume, takes container's shape, molecules move

Gas properties

• Gas: No fixed shape/volume, molecules move freely

Changes of State:

• Melting: Solid to Liquid
• Freezing: Liquid to Solid
• Vaporization: Liquid to Gas
• Condensation: Gas to Liquid
• Sublimation: Solid to Gas (dry ice)
• Deposition: Gas to Solid (frost)

Energy in Chemical Reactions:

• Reactions release or absorb energy

Exothermic Reactions:

• Exothermic reactions release energy (combustion)

Endothermic Reactions:

• Endothermic reactions absorb energy (photosynthesis)

Law of Conservation of Mass:

• Mass is neither created nor destroyed

Gas Laws

• Boyle's Law: P1V1 = P2V2
• Charles's Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2
• Gay Lussac’s Law: P1/T1 = P2/T2
• Combined Gas Law: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
• Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

Temperature Conversions:

• K = 273.15 + C
• C to F = (C * 9/5) + 32
• F to C = (F * 5/9) - 32

Earth Science:

Earth Science is the study of the Earth’s structure, processes, environment, and living organisms

Earth Science combined fields

• Earth Science combines geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy

Earth Structure:

• Crust: Thin, outer, composed of rocks
• Mantle: Below crust, semi-solid, causes activity
• Core: Innermost, outer (liquid) and inner (solid), iron and nickel

Plate Tectonics:

• Lithosphere: Rigid outer layer, crust and upper mantle
• Asthenosphere: Semi-fluid layer allowing plate movement
• Tectonic Plates: Sections of lithosphere floating on the asthenosphere and boundaries are convergent, divergent, transform

Processes and Phenomena:

• Earthquakes: Release of energy, causes shaking
• Volcanism: Magma eruptions
• Mountain Building: Plate collisions forming ranges
• Subduction Zones: Forcing one plate under another

Earth Atmosphere:

• Troposphere: Weather
• Stratosphere: Ozone layer
• Mesosphere: Meteors burn
• Thermosphere: Auroras
• Exosphere: Outermost layer

Weather and Climate:

• Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions
• Climate: Long-term weather patterns
• Global Wind Patterns: Defined by Earth's rotation/ pressure diff
• Greenhouse Effect: Trapping of heat by gases

Water Cycle and Oceans:

• Water cycle: Continuous movement
• Ocean Currents: Influenced by wind, rotation, salinity
• Ocean Zones: Divided into sunlit, thermocline, and depth
• Tides/Waves: Tides are defined by the moon/winds

Geological Processes:

• Rock Cycle: Formation, alteration, recycling

Three main rock types

• Igneous form from cooled magma or lava
• Sedimentary form from compression
• Metamorphic form from high pressure

Geological Processes:

• Erosion and Weathering: Breakdown transportation
• Fossils: Used to understand

Resource Types:

• Renewable: Replenished naturally
• Non-renewable: Not replenished quickly
• Sustainability: Managing resources for long term

Natural Hazards:

• Earthquakes are caused by energy
• Volcanic Eruptions are due to Magma on earth
• Extreme weather events is a Hurricane
• Flooding and Drought are defined by patterns of human activities

Human Impact on Earth:

• Global Warming increase gases
• Deforestation: Clearing
• Pollution: Contamination

Earth Position:

• Solar System: Earth, sun, moon, and planets
• Seasons: Earth axis tilt
• The Moon: The satellite effects tides
• Earth Motion rotation with the sun gives revolutions yearly

Tools used in science:

• Hypothesis: Prediction
• Experimentation: Testing
• Data Collection: Using instruments to data
• Analysis: Data analysis

Physics;

• Physics is universe behavior of nature, the forces

Physics involves:

• Physics include mechanics, electromagnetism modern

SI Units:

• M (meter) = length
• Kg (kilogram) = mass
• Time = S (second)
• Current = A (ampere)
• Temperature is K (kelvin)
• Substance mole
• Luminous intensity candela

Dimensial Analysis

• Checking to conversions

Kinematics - Motion

• Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration: Study motion
• Displacement(s)is vector
• Velocity is change
• Acceleration change velocity

Kinematic Equations:

• vf = vi + at;
• D = vit + ½ at^2;
• D = ½ (vf-vi) t;
• vf^2 = vi^2 + 2ad

Dynamics:

• Motion is Newton

Newton's Laws of Motion:

• First Law; objects stop when force
• Second Law force is acceleration
• Third force equal direction

Free Body Diagram:

• Include gravitational, tension

Momentum and Impulse:

• Energy transfer
• Kinetic Energy and motion
• Potential gravitational acceleration
• Energy transformed
• Energy rate

Momentum and Impulse

• Momentum mass product
• Impulse change interval time
• Collision remains momentum

Circular Motion

• Central Force object
• Angular velocity displacement
• Central Acceleration is acceleration

Gravitation:

• Newton Mass F=G(m1m2/r^2) every other
• Field-mass gravity

Thermodynamics

• Heat Energy temperature
• Laws of thermodynamics: systems with equilibrium
• First Conservation=Q-W
• Second isolated system
• Third- approach absolute zero
• Heat transfer conduction

Waves and Optics:

• Mechanical Waves is a medium to propagate, water
• Electromagneticwaves: Doesnt need mediumradio X-rays

Wave Properties:

• thelength between crests
• Frequency the number

Space exploration:

• Study outer space and astronomy
• It contains stars galaxies and more

Solar System:

• About 4.6 years ago
• The sun is a core with structure
• Planets gas and terrestrail divide
• Moons Planets some names are Titan

Asteroids and Comets:

• Some rocks stay in comets
• Comets move sun tails

Stars Stellar

• Forming begins is fusion
• Protostars - First
• Main long phase
• Red Burn when die
• Explode neutron

Dwarf Galaxies

• Shed light
• From escape

Glaxies

• Some galxies spiral
• Elliptical oval
• Shaped Irregular
• Milky way

Cosmology

• Its structure has a fate origin
• Explains the big bang and is always expanding
• Invisible everything is dark

###Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radiation visible
• Length and waves