Cell Structure: Study Guide

What are the limits of visible size with the unaided eye, light microscopy, and electron microscopy?

Compare & contrast prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells, & plant vs animal cells.

Describe the structure of the plasma membrane.

Describe the nucleus and the function of ribosomes.

What are some functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum vs. rough endoplasmic reticulum?

What are the functions of the Golgi apparatus?

What are the functions of lysosomes and vacuoles?

What are the functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts?

What is the cytoskeleton and what are some its functions?

Describe the three main components of the cytoskeleton and the main functions of each (microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments).

What is a centrosome and what does it make?

What is a cilia vs. flagella?

Describe the functions of plasmodesmata, tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

What is selective permeability?

Discuss membrane transport in the sense of: types of proteins, passive transport mechanisms, active transport mechanisms

What is the sodium-potassium pump? Does it require energy?

Explain the difference between diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Explain the differences between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic.

Discuss the different types of bulk transport across the membrane.

What is potential energy vs. kinetic energy?

What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?

Describe the structure of ATP. What is ATP composed of?

Define the terms catalyst and enzyme.

Describe how enzymes speed up chemical reactions.

What factors can affect the optimal activity of enzymes?

Describe the difference between competitive vs. noncompetitive inhibitors.

Differentiate between aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation.

Define the terms oxidation and reduction.

What are the roles of NAD+/NADH in energy transfer?

What are the three major stages of cellular respiration and where do each occur?

Describe the location and products of glycolysis.

Which products of glycolysis enter pyruvate oxidation?

What is the difference between the energy-input phase vs. the energy-payoff phase of glycolysis?

Describe the location and products of the citric acid cycle.

Describe the electron transport chain, where it occurs, and its main functions.

What is the role of oxygen in the electron transport chain?

Describe how the electron transport chain creates the correct conditions to create ATP.

What's the total ATP per glucose molecule in cellular respiration overall?

What are the differences between alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation?

Define photosynthesis and describe its importance to life on earth.

Which organisms are autotrophs?

Describe the structural organization of chloroplasts.

What are the two main stages (cycles) of photosynthesis and how are they interrelated?

How does electromagnetic light spectrum relate to energy that plants can use?

Describe the activities that occur at the thylakoid membrane with respect to photosystem I & II.

What products of light reactions are used by the Calvin cycle, and how are those products used by the Calvin cycle?

What are the products of the Calvin cycle and how are they utilized by plant cells?

Describe how chromatin is packaged in a eukaryotic chromosome.

What is cell division?

What is the relationship between DNA, chromatin, and chromosomes?

Differentiate between somatic cells and gametes and provide examples of each.

What are the major phases of the cell cycle? Describe the events that occur during each of the phases of mitosis.

Describe the structure of the mitotic spindle using the terms microtubules, centrosome, and metaphase plate.

What occurs during cytokinesis?

What is binary fission?

During which process does a cell replicate its DNA in preparation for division?

Which of the following results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and the parent cell?

Healthy prokaryotic cells can acquire new DNA through various methods. Which of the following describes a mechanism of genetic material transfer between prokaryotes?

Which statement accurately describes the behavior of DNA during cell division?

What critical event occurs during anaphase?

How does cytokinesis differ in animal and plant cells?

A cell has just completed DNA replication during the S phase of the cell cycle. Assuming all checkpoints are functioning correctly, what is the next phase the cell will enter?

A researcher observes a cell in which the nuclear envelope is fragmenting and the chromosomes are condensing. Which phase of mitosis is this cell most likely in?

Which of the following is a key difference between mitosis and binary fission?

What is the direct result if cytokinesis is skipped during cell division?

Mutations in genes controlling which of the following processes are most likely to result in cancer?

How is the function of mitosis related to the development of a fetus?

What distinguishes the G1 phase of the cell cycle?

What is the role of spindle fibers during mitosis?

Which of the following best describes the role of apoptosis?

Which of the following is a risk factor for cancer that cannot be avoided?

What event typically follows mitosis?

Certain cancer treatments aim to stop tumors from spreading, and are effective against highly malignant cells. How would these treatments disrupt tumor growth?

What primary characteristic distinguishes cancer cells from normal cells?

Following DNA replication, each chromosome consists of two copies, one for each of the new daughter cells. What are these copies?

Why is DNA replication essential before any cell division?

If a new drug prevents the shortening of spindle fibers, what stage of mitosis would be inhibited?

During which phase of the cell cycle are chromosomes checked for correct alignment?

What characteristic is associated to a benign tumor?

In which stage of mitosis does the nuclear envelope reform around the separated chromosomes?

Why is genetic variation not observed in cells produced through binary fission?

Which phase of mitosis is primarily defined by chromosomes aligning along the equatorial plane of the cell?

Why could minimizing exposure to harmful chemicals reduce cancer risk?

A cell with damaged DNA proceeds through S phase. Which checkpoint has failed?

What structural feature is present during cytokinesis in plant cells but not in animal cells?

Which cellular process is responsible for repairing damaged tissue in multicellular organisms?

If a eukaryotic cell’s DNA was not properly condensed during prophase, how would this impact subsequent steps in mitosis?

What stage of mitosis is characterized by spindle fibers attaching to chromosomes?

How does binary fission ensure that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material?

In some organisms, mitosis occurs without cytokinesis. What would result from this?

What can be inferred if an organism reproduces asexually by mitosis?

Which of these statements correctly describes genetic material distribution following mitosis?

During which phase of the cell cycle does the cell actively transcribe genes and conduct normal functions unrelated to cell division?

What critical event commits a cell to proceed through the rest of the cell cycle and divide?

If a cell's chromosomes failed to properly decondense during telophase, what would be the most likely consequence?

Which of the following strategies would be least effective in preventing cancer?

How does binary fission in prokaryotes ensure genetic continuity across generations?

Which of the following statements accurately describes the role of photosynthetic organisms in an ecosystem?

Photosynthesis converts which form of energy into what other?

Which of the following represents the main inputs and outputs of photosynthesis?

How do the sugars produced during photosynthesis contribute to the cellular activities of plants?

Which of the following is the function of sunlight in photosynthesis?

What is the role of carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) in the process of photosynthesis?

Water is essential for photosynthesis, but how is it directly utilized in the process?

What happens to the oxygen produced during photosynthesis?

Which statement accurately describes the relationship between wavelength and energy in the electromagnetic spectrum?

In the context of photosynthesis, what is a photon?

How do plants capture photons of light?

What is the role of photosynthetic pigments in plants?

The color we perceive when looking at a leaf is primarily the result of...

Why is green light not efficiently used by plants for photosynthesis?

Where does gas exchange occur in plant leaves?

What is the primary function of mesophyll cells in plant leaves?

How are chloroplasts related to photosynthesis?

Which describes the location of thylakoids within the plant cell?

Where are pigment molecules located in the chloroplasts?

What is a photosystem composed of?

What are the reactants of photosynthesis?

What is produced overall in the process of photosynthesis?

Which of the following occurs during the light reactions in photosynthesis?

Which describes the products of the light reactions that are used in the carbon reactions?

Where do the light reactions of photosynthesis take place?

How is potential energy in the electrons are used in light reactions?

What role does ATP synthase play in the light reactions?

What happens to the electrons after they move from PSII to PSI?

What is the final step of the light reaction?

How do most light reactions typically produce ATP?

Where do the carbon reactions take place in the cells?

Which of the following describes the source of energy that drives the carbon reactions?

What is the role of the rubisco enzyme?

In carbon fixation what molecule is carbon removed from?

What is the key first step the Rubisco enzyme performs?

What small organic molecules are formed in the PGAL synthesis stage?

How is energy from ATP and NADPH used to convert PGA to PGAL?

From the carbon reactions, what exits the cycle and what starts anew?

What powers is used to regenerate RuBP?

How do plants make cellulose?

What are the steps of photosynthesis?

Which of the following best explains why photosynthetic organisms are considered the foundation of most ecosystems?

What is the relationship between the energy of a photon and its wavelength?

Why do plants primarily use Chlorophyll a in photosynthesis?

Why are leaves typically green?

How does the structure of a chloroplast support the process of photosynthesis?

What is the relationship between a photosystem and photosynthesis?

What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis?

During the light reactions of photosynthesis, what is the primary role of water?

How is ATP produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?

What is the role of the Rubisco enzyme in the carbon reactions?

Animals, like the bluebird, are capable of synthesizing their own food, similar to plants.

All organisms require oxygen for cellular respiration.

ATP is not essential for cells to survive.

Molecules, such as glucose, in food are employed in the synthesis of ATP.

Cellular respiration primarily involves the breakdown of proteins into amino acids.

The potential energy stored in glucose is released and used to generate ADP.

Aerobic cellular respiration is how cells utilize heat.

Mitochondria are involved in active transport, but not muscle contractions.

The reactants in the overall equation for aerobic cellular respiration are solely carbon dioxide and water.

Fermentation is the means by which the cell is powered to do work.

The products of aerobic cellular respiration include oxygen and glucose.

The air we exhale is rich in oxygen, which is essential for cellular respiration to occur.

Oxygen is required for anaerobic cellular respiration.

Plants do not require ATP to power their cells.

Plants primarily use photosynthesis instead of cellular respiration to get rid of extra CO2.

Cellular respiration involves three main pathways: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and photosynthesis.

The Krebs cycle immediately precedes glycolysis in cellular respiration.

Glycolysis results in two, three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. More energy is transferred during the Krebs cycle.

Oxidation-reduction reactions are crucial to cellular respiration.

The pathways of cellular respiration release energy by oxidizing oxygen and reducing glucose.

If all the energy from cellular respiration were released at once, it would maximize ATP storage.

Cellular respiration releases energy from glucose in a one single energy burst.

Glycolysis takes place in mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.

The Krebs cycle takes place in the cytosol in prokaryotes.

The Krebs cycle takes place in the cell membrane in eukaryotes.

The Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain are not key ATP-generating processes.

The anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration tap much of the potential energy stored in glucose.

Aerobic and anaerobic environments inhibit glycolysis.

The transition step releases one molecule of CO2 for each molecule of pyruvate.

The Krebs cycle oxidizes pyruvate.

During the Krebs cycle, the carbons from acetyl CoA are released as two molecules of water.

During the electron transport chain, the potential energy from electrons is used to produce a hydrogen gradient.

ATP synthase requires oxygen to generate ATP.

The final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain is carbon dioxide.

Glycolysis produces a net of two ATP, enough to keep our cells alive.

The digestive system converts starch, glycogen, and complex sugars into individual protein.

Proteins and fats can both be used as energy sources for the cell.

Cellular respiration is always aerobic.

There is a Krebs cycle and ETC after fermentation.

In the absence of oxygen, microbes use photosynthesis to regenerate NAD+.

How does the structure of ATP relate to its function as an energy currency?

Explain how the first law of thermodynamics applies to biological systems.

Describe how the second law of thermodynamics relates to the efficiency of energy transformations in living organisms.

Why do cells use ATP, rather than directly using solar energy, to power cellular work?

How do oxidation-reduction reactions play a role in energy transformations?

Explain how enzymes increase the rate of reactions.

What would happen if there were no enzyme inhibitors?

Why do noncompetitive inhibitors prevent reactions more effectively than competitive?

How does the induced fit model of enzyme function refine the lock-and-key model?

Explain how feedback inhibition regulates metabolic pathways.

How does the structure of the active site contribute to enzyme specificity?

Explain why enzymes have optimal temperature and pH ranges.

Compare and contrast the mechanisms of competitive and noncompetitive enzyme inhibition.

How does the concept of activation energy relate to the stability of molecules?

Describe the role of cofactors and coenzymes in enzyme function.

How do allosteric enzymes contribute to metabolic control?

Explain how the cellular environment can influence enzyme kinetics.

What is the significance of the standard free energy change (ΔG°) in predicting the spontaneity of a reaction within a cell?

How do enzymes affect the equilibrium of a reversible reaction?

Describe the relationship between enzyme saturation and reaction rate.

Explain the relationship between kinetic and potential energy, and provide an example in a biological system.

What mechanisms do cells employ to couple exergonic reactions with endergonic reactions, and why is this coupling necessary?

How does chemiosmosis utilize electron transport chains to produce ATP?

How does the concept of homeostasis relate to the regulation of metabolic pathways?

Describe how the structure of the inner mitochondrial membrane supports its role in oxidative phosphorylation.

What is the role of entropy in determining the direction and efficiency of biochemical reactions?

Explain how phosphorylation cascades can amplify cellular responses to external signals.

How do extremozymes demonstrate the adaptation of enzymes to extreme environmental conditions?

What is the significance of compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells for regulating metabolic pathways?

How do enzymes in metabolic pathways contribute to the efficiency and specificity of the biochemical reactions?

In what ways does the allosteric regulation of enzymes enable cells to efficiently respond to changes in their environment and maintain metabolic balance?

How might a mutation in the active site of an enzyme affect its function, and what are the potential consequences for a cell or organism?

In the context of enzyme kinetics, what are the Michaelis-Menten constant ($K_m$) and the maximum reaction rate ($V_{max}$), and how do they contribute to our understanding of enzyme behavior?

How do feedback inhibition mechanisms in metabolic pathways respond to changes in cellular energy levels, and what impact does this have on the cell's energy balance?

In what ways can the study of enzyme kinetics and regulation be applied to the development of novel drugs and therapies to treat human diseases?

ATP hydrolysis powers many cellular processes. How does the ΔG of ATP hydrolysis under cellular conditions compare to the ΔG° (standard free energy change) and why might this difference be significant?

Consider a scenario in which a cell is exposed to a novel, synthetic molecule that acts as an irreversible enzyme inhibitor within a crucial metabolic pathway. How might the cell respond to counteract the effects of this inhibitor and maintain metabolic homeostasis?

If a scientist discovers a novel enzyme from a deep-sea vent organism with remarkable stability at high temperatures, what structural adaptations might contribute to its thermostability, and how could these adaptations be investigated at the molecular level?

What are the key differences between product inhibition and feedback inhibition, and how do these regulatory mechanisms contribute to the overall control of metabolic pathways within cells?

Cells use energy to 'stay ordered'. Explain how this relates to the concept of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics.

Describe the relationship between oxidation and reduction reactions, and explain how these reactions are linked in biological systems.

Explain how ATP hydrolysis is coupled with other chemical reactions, and give a specific example of a cellular process that relies on this coupling.

Inhibitors play a key role in regulating enzyme activity. Compare and contrast competitive and noncompetitive inhibition, detailing how each type of inhibition affects enzyme function.

Explain the concept of activation energy and how enzymes affect this critical parameter of a chemical reaction. How would a reaction proceed differently without an enzyme?

Substances can enter or exit cells through _______.

A cell's interior is chemically the same as its exterior.

What is an example of homeostasis?

Membranes form _______ in cells.

What two factors determine how solutes enter and exit cells?

What is a concentration difference called?

Molecules diffuse until a concentration gradient no longer exists.

Simple diffusion requires energy.

Where does simple diffusion take place?

What molecules can cross cell membranes by simple diffusion?

Osmosis requires energy.

When does osmosis take place?

Where do water molecules move during osmosis?

What happens to plants in hypertonic surroundings?

In an isotonic solution, how does water move in and out of cells?

In a hypertonic solution, how does water move in and out of cells?

Facilitated diffusion requires energy.

When does facilitated diffusion occur?

Why does the sodium-potassium pump require energy? Refer to the image below.

This solute is _______, and its transport _______ does not require ATP.

Endocytosis requires energy.

What do cells form during endocytosis?

Match the type of microscope with what it is best suited for viewing:

Match the organelle with its function:

Match the type of cell with its correct characteristics:

Match the term to the correct definition or example:

Match the cell structure with its primary function:

Match the cell process with the organelles primarily involved:

Match each anatomical aspect to the correct function:

Match the component of the cytoskeleton with its protein subunit or description:

Match the intercellular junction with its function:

Match the feature to a definition:

Match the cell features with their purpose.

Match the domain with the cell type.

Match the step to the process.

Match the step with the function.

Match the surface structure to the function.

Match the stage to the term.

Match the cell stage with what proteins are doing.

Match the structure to its location

Match the type of cellular action with it's benefit.

Match the type of cell interaction

Match the element with a description of that.

Match the element with tissue specialization

Match the term with its description.

Match the organelle to its primary activity.

Match the feature to what it is suited to helping.

Match the descriptor with the type of cell

Match the location with the structures

Match the step with the final point

Match action with description

Match the activity with key ingredients

Match the structural organization of a chloroplast.

Match the structural component to its function

Match the function to the cell it can occur in.

Match the feature to the correct specialization.

Match each type of microscope with its key characteristic.

Match each domain of life with its distinctive cellular features.

Match the type of cell with the features it contains.

Match each cellular component with its role in protein production.

Match each membrane component with its primary function.

Match each component of the cytoskeleton with its function.

Match the type of cell junction with its description.

Associate each organelle with its role in cellular digestion.

Match each organelle with its role in energy production.

Match each term with its definition.

Match each organelle to the cellular process it facilitates.

Match each of these cells to its most likely environment.

Match the disease with the malfunctioning cell.

Based on the structures, specify if the cell is eukaryotic or prokaryotic.

Match the function with the appropriate structure.

Match the process to its role: