Cell Structure and Function
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the chloroplast?

  • To capture solar energy for photosynthesis (correct)
  • To control transport within the cell
  • To store substances
  • To produce proteins

Which organelle is primarily responsible for protein synthesis?

  • Ribosome (correct)
  • Nucleus
  • Cytoplasm
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum

What distinguishes the rough endoplasmic reticulum from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

  • Smooth ER is involved in detoxification, while rough ER is not
  • Rough ER contains ribosomes, smooth ER does not (correct)
  • Smooth ER is primarily involved in photosynthesis
  • Rough ER stores substances, smooth ER captures solar energy

What is the primary role of the vacuole in plant cells?

<p>To store substances (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the unique function of nitroplast discovered in 2024?

<p>To aid in nitrogen-fixation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of transport requires energy and moves substances against the concentration gradient?

<p>Active transport (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is specifically known as 'cellular drinking'?

<p>Pinocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the plasma membrane in terms of homeostasis?

<p>To regulate the entry and exit of substances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which solution will a cell swell and potentially burst due to water influx?

<p>Hypotonic solution (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What substance is produced during cellular respiration that is commonly used for energy?

<p>ATP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of passive transport?

<p>It occurs with the concentration gradient (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes phagocytosis?

<p>Engulfing large particles or cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution?

<p>It shrivels due to water loss (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary product formed when 3-PGA molecules receive energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH?

<p>G3P (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase do homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles in meiosis?

<p>Anaphase I (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase do chromosmes coil and condense, and the spindle apparatus begins to appear?

<p>Prophase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the S phase of interphase?

<p>DNA replication takes place (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of RNA polymerase during transcription?

<p>It binds to the promoter region and unwinds DNA. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ATP during the regeneration phase of the Calvin cycle?

<p>To convert G3P into RuBP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of transcription does RNA polymerase add RNA nucleotides to form an RNA strand?

<p>Elongation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do daughter cells produced by mitosis compare to the mother cell?

<p>They are genetically identical (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the termination phase of transcription?

<p>A terminator sequence is reached, completing RNA synthesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs immediately after the separation of the centromere during anaphase?

<p>Spindle fibers pull centromeres toward centrioles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In translation, what role does the ribosome play?

<p>It assembles around mRNA to facilitate protein synthesis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What marks the end of the telophase stage?

<p>Cytokinesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a genotype?

<p>The genetic makeup composed of allele combinations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells undergo division in mitosis?

<p>Somatic cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During meiosis I, what is the genetic composition of each daughter cell at the end of the division?

<p>Haploid and genetically different from each other (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly defines a dominant allele?

<p>An allele that expresses its trait even in the presence of a different allele. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are alleles?

<p>Different versions of a same gene. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the conversion of RNA into a protein?

<p>Translation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of biotechnology?

<p>To develop or modify products for specific purposes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method utilizes guide RNA to direct cutting at specific DNA sequences?

<p>CRISPR-Cas 9 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is recombinant DNA primarily associated with in biotechnology?

<p>Transferring traits between unrelated organisms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does gene editing like TALENS function?

<p>It creates proteins to bind to specific DNA sequences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the primary applications of traditional biotechnology?

<p>Fermentation processes using microbes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components aids in cutting specific DNA sequences in Zinc Finger Nucleases?

<p>Engineered zinc finger proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes Archaea from Bacteria?

<p>Lack of peptidoglycan (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which taxonomic level is the most specific?

<p>Species (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from crossing pea plants with different traits?

<p>Producing a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of naming system was developed by Carl Linnaeus?

<p>Binomial nomenclature (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the domains of life?

<p>Virus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mnemonic can help remember the taxonomic hierarchy?

<p>King Philip Came Over For Good Soup (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which kingdom is characterized by multicellular, autotrophic organisms with cellulose cell walls?

<p>Plantae (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What method of classification emphasizes evolutionary relationships?

<p>Phylogenetics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following levels of the taxonomic hierarchy directly follows 'Order'?

<p>Family (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group do eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms without cell walls belong to?

<p>Animalia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cell Membrane

A phospholipid bilayer that protects the cell, controls transport, and maintains internal balance.

Cytoplasm

Fluid inside the cell that holds organelles and supports their functions.

Chloroplast

Plant cell organelle capturing solar energy for photosynthesis.

Ribosome

Organelle responsible for protein production in the cell.

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Nucleus

Cell's control center, containing DNA instructions for cell activities.

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Active Transport

Movement of substances across the plasma membrane that requires the cell's energy and carrier molecules. Substances move from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration (against the concentration gradient).

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Passive Transport

Movement of substances across the plasma membrane without the use of the cell's energy. Substances move with the concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

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Endocytosis

Process where large particles are brought into the cell by engulfing them in a membrane-bound vesicle.

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Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs solid particles, such as bacteria or debris.

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Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs liquid droplets, such as water or dissolved substances.

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Exocytosis

Process where large particles are released from the cell by fusing a vesicle containing the particles with the plasma membrane.

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Homeostasis

The state of internal balance within a cell or organism; the plasma membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell, maintaining this balance.

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What is the effect of a hypotonic environment on a cell?

In a hypotonic environment, the concentration of water is higher outside the cell than inside. Water moves into the cell, causing it to swell and potentially burst.

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Interphase

The stage where the cell grows, performs routine functions, and copies its DNA. It precedes both Mitosis and Meiosis.

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Mitosis

The process of cell division that creates two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. This is how our bodies grow and repair tissues.

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Meiosis

A type of cell division that produces four gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. This is how we create sperm and eggs.

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Prophase

The first stage of mitosis and meiosis where chromosomes condense, become visible, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

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Metaphase

Stage where chromosomes align in the middle of the cell, attached to spindle fibers, ready for separation.

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Anaphase

The stage when sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell, pulled by spindle fibers.

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Telophase

The final stage of mitosis or meiosis where chromosomes uncoil, the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cell divides into two daughter cells.

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Cytokinesis

The division of the cytoplasm that follows nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis), resulting in two completely separate daughter cells.

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Centrioles

Small, cylindrical structures that are involved in organising spindle fibers during cell division.

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Spindle Fibers

Microtubules that attach to chromosomes during mitosis or meiosis, pulling them apart and ensuring their proper segregation.

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Transcription

The process of copying genetic information from DNA to RNA. It involves three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination.

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Translation

The process of converting the genetic code in mRNA into a protein. It also involves initiation, elongation, and termination.

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Initiation (Transcription)

The first step in transcription where RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA and starts unwinding the DNA strands.

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Elongation (Transcription)

The second step in transcription where RNA polymerase synthesizes the RNA strand by adding RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template strand.

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Termination (Transcription)

The final step in transcription where RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence and the newly formed RNA molecule is released.

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Initiation (Translation)

The first step in translation where the ribosome assembles around the mRNA and the first tRNA, carrying the start amino acid (methionine), recognizes the start codon (AUG).

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Elongation (Translation)

The second step in translation where tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codon sequence. Peptide bonds form between amino acids, creating a growing polypeptide chain.

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Termination (Translation)

The final step in translation where the ribosome reaches a stop codon, which does not code for an amino acid. The completed polypeptide chain is released, and the ribosome disassembles.

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Taxonomy

The science of classifying organisms based on shared characteristics.

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Taxonomic Hierarchy

A system of classification that ranks organisms into a series of increasingly specific levels: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

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Species

The most specific level in the taxonomic hierarchy, representing a group of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

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Binomial Nomenclature

A two-word naming system for species, consisting of the genus name and the specific epithet (species name), often in Latin.

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Domains

The highest level of taxonomic classification, currently divided into three: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

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Protista

A kingdom within Domain Eukarya, composed of mostly unicellular eukaryotic organisms. It is a diverse group including algae, slime molds, and protozoa.

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Phylogenetics

Classification based on evolutionary relationships and genetic information.

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Cladistics

A method of classification focused on common ancestry, using cladograms (tree-like diagrams) to show relationships.

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Biotechnology

Technology using biological systems to create or modify products or processes for specific purposes. This includes traditional methods like breeding and fermentation, and modern methods like recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering.

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Recombinant DNA

DNA that has been altered by combining genetic material from different sources. This results in organisms with new traits, allowing for production of things like insulin or oil-eating bacteria.

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Gene Editing

Precisely altering the DNA sequence of an organism using techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 or TALENS. This allows for targeted changes in genetic functions.

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CRISPR-Cas9

A gene editing technique using a guide RNA to direct the Cas9 enzyme to a specific DNA sequence for cutting and alteration.

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Linnaeus's System

A standardized two-part naming system for organisms: Genus species (e.g., Homo sapiens). This reduces confusion and organizes the diversity of life.

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Domains of Life

Three major categories that classify life: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. This reflects major evolutionary relationships and differences.

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What is the importance of Linnaeus's biological naming system?

Linnaeus's system provides a standardized, universally recognized naming system for organisms, reducing confusion and promoting scientific communication.

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How does recombinant DNA technology benefit us?

Recombinant DNA allows for the creation of organisms with new traits, leading to applications in medicine (like producing insulin), environmental cleanup (like oil-eating bacteria), and agriculture.

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Study Notes

Cell Structure and Function

  • Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
  • Cell → Tissue → Organ → System → Organism
  • Revised Cell Theory:
    • All organisms are composed of cells.
    • The cell is the basic unit of life.
    • All cells come from pre-existing cells.
  • Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells:
    • Prokaryotic cells:
      • No membrane-bound nucleus.
      • Cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
      • No membrane-bound organelles.
      • Have pili & fimbriae (for adhesion) and flagella (for propulsion).
      • Single-celled organisms.
      • Single circular chromosome.
    • Eukaryotic cells:
      • Membrane-bound nucleus.
      • Cell walls, if present, are made of cellulose (chitin in fungi).
      • Membrane-bound organelles (compartmentalization).
      • Have cilia or flagella (for movement).
      • Single or multicellular.
      • Multiple linear chromosomes.
      • More complex cells (e.g., plant and animal cells).

Cell Organelles

  • Cell (plasma) membrane: phospholipid bilayer, protects, encloses, controls transport, maintains homeostasis.
  • Cytoplasm: fluid-like substance containing membrane-bound organelles performing various functions.
  • Cytoskeleton: provides internal structural support.
  • Ribosomes: produce proteins.
  • Nucleus: contains DNA, controls cellular activities.
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough/Smooth): site of chemical reactions, protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, and detoxification of poisons.
    • Rough ER: contains ribosomes
    • Smooth ER: lipid production
  • Golgi Body: packages and distributes products.
  • Lysosomes: digest excess products and food particles.
  • Mitochondria: transform energy through respiration.
  • Cell wall: rigid layer protecting and enclosing the cell (plant cells and some bacteria).
  • Chloroplast: captures solar energy for photosynthesis (plant cells, some algae).
  • Vacuole: stores substances.
  • Nitroplast: a new discovery in 2024 for nitrogen fixation, formed via primary endosymbiosis.

Building Blocks of Life

  • Carbohydrates: organic compounds (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen).
    • Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
  • Lipids: class of large biomolecules not formed through polymerization.
    • Diverse structures, non-polar.
    • Energy storage.

Cellular Respiration

  • Breaking down glucose into energy in ATP form.
  • C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical Energy (in ATP)
  • Stages:
    • Glycolysis (anaerobic, in cytoplasm):
      • Glucose broken down to pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.
    • Citric Acid Cycle (aerobic, in mitochondrial matrix):
      • Pyruvate further broken down, producing CO2, ATP, and electron carriers.
    • Oxidative Phosphorylation (aerobic, in inner mitochondrial membrane):
      • Electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) release energy producing ATP through chemiosmosis and electron transport chain.

Photosynthesis

  • Process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy (carbohydrates).
  • Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll (green pigment).
  • Light-dependent reactions (in thylakoid membrane):
    • Solar energy converted to chemical energy (ATP, NADPH).
    • Water split, releasing O2.
  • Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle, in stroma):
    • CO2, ATP, and NADPH used to synthesize glucose.

Cell Division

  • Mitosis: produces two identical diploid daughter cells.
  • Meiosis: produces four genetically distinct haploid daughter cells.

DNA and RNA

  • DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, genetic instructions for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction.
  • RNA: Ribonucleic acid, gene expression, regulation, protein synthesis, 3 types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.

Modern Classification Systems

  • Cladistics: classification based on common ancestry.
  • Phylogenetics: classification based on evolutionary relationships and genetic information.

Patterns of Inheritance

  • Dominant allele: expresses its trait even in presence of other allele.
  • Recessive allele: expresses its trait only with another same allele.
  • Codominance: both alleles expressed fully.
  • Incomplete dominance: heterozygous phenotype is intermediate.
  • Mitochondrial inheritance: traits passed from only mother to offspring through mitochondria in the egg.
  • Polygenic inheritance: multiple genes control traits; continuous range of phenotypes.
  • Multifactorial inheritance: influenced by genes and environmental factors.

Biotechnology

  • Uses biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop or modify products/processes.
    • Traditional biotechnology (plant/animal breeding, fermentation).
    • Modern biotechnology (recombinant DNA technology, molecular markers, gene editing).
    • Genetic engineering- process of transferring genes.
    • Gene editing- alteration of DNA sequences using techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 or TALENS.

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