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Questions and Answers
Which type of hyperplasia involves the enlargement of organs due to hormonal stimulation?
Which type of hyperplasia involves the enlargement of organs due to hormonal stimulation?
- Pathological hyperplasia
- Physiological hyperplasia (correct)
- Metaplastic hyperplasia
- Compensatory hyperplasia
What is the process called where one type of adult tissue is replaced by another type?
What is the process called where one type of adult tissue is replaced by another type?
- Hyperplasia
- Dysplasia
- Metaplasia (correct)
- Atrophy
Atrophy can result from which of the following factors?
Atrophy can result from which of the following factors?
- Nutritional deficiencies (correct)
- Increased workload
- Chronic disease (correct)
- Hormonal changes (correct)
How do hormones influence cell growth?
How do hormones influence cell growth?
What effect does aging have on cells?
What effect does aging have on cells?
Which of the following cellular changes is least likely to occur in atrophy?
Which of the following cellular changes is least likely to occur in atrophy?
In which scenario would metaplasia most commonly occur?
In which scenario would metaplasia most commonly occur?
Which statement regarding hyperplasia is false?
Which statement regarding hyperplasia is false?
Which process involves an increase in the number of cells in a tissue due to a stimulus?
Which process involves an increase in the number of cells in a tissue due to a stimulus?
What is the main mechanism behind atrophy?
What is the main mechanism behind atrophy?
Which condition describes a change in cell type due to an irritating stimulus?
Which condition describes a change in cell type due to an irritating stimulus?
What hormonal influence is most commonly associated with stimulating cell growth?
What hormonal influence is most commonly associated with stimulating cell growth?
How does aging typically affect cells?
How does aging typically affect cells?
Which of the following is a reversible condition resulting from stress on cells?
Which of the following is a reversible condition resulting from stress on cells?
Which factor is least likely to contribute to cell injury associated with aging?
Which factor is least likely to contribute to cell injury associated with aging?
What type of immune response can lead to cell damage?
What type of immune response can lead to cell damage?
What is the main mechanism for cell death in highly proliferative tissues?
What is the main mechanism for cell death in highly proliferative tissues?
Which condition is associated with physiologic apoptosis during developmental processes?
Which condition is associated with physiologic apoptosis during developmental processes?
What triggers apoptosis in leukocytes at the end of inflammatory responses?
What triggers apoptosis in leukocytes at the end of inflammatory responses?
Which of the following conditions can lead to pathologic apoptosis due to DNA damage?
Which of the following conditions can lead to pathologic apoptosis due to DNA damage?
How does the decline in hormone levels affect hormone-dependent tissues?
How does the decline in hormone levels affect hormone-dependent tissues?
What is the effect of strong recognition of self antigens on lymphocytes?
What is the effect of strong recognition of self antigens on lymphocytes?
What type of proteins are activated during infections to induce apoptosis in host cells?
What type of proteins are activated during infections to induce apoptosis in host cells?
Which mechanism is presumed to play a role in the turnover of proliferative tissues like intestinal epithelium?
Which mechanism is presumed to play a role in the turnover of proliferative tissues like intestinal epithelium?
How is aging primarily reflected in cellular responses?
How is aging primarily reflected in cellular responses?
What is an observed characteristic of necrotic cell death compared to apoptosis?
What is an observed characteristic of necrotic cell death compared to apoptosis?
What term is used to describe the appearance of lipid vacuoles in the cytoplasm of injured cells?
What term is used to describe the appearance of lipid vacuoles in the cytoplasm of injured cells?
Which alteration is associated with the plasma membrane during cell injury?
Which alteration is associated with the plasma membrane during cell injury?
What change occurs in the cytoplasm of injured cells that is characterized by red staining?
What change occurs in the cytoplasm of injured cells that is characterized by red staining?
What is a common feature seen in the mitochondria of injured cells?
What is a common feature seen in the mitochondria of injured cells?
Which change in the endoplasmic reticulum is associated with cell injury?
Which change in the endoplasmic reticulum is associated with cell injury?
Which of the following describes a change in nuclear appearance during cellular injury?
Which of the following describes a change in nuclear appearance during cellular injury?
What does the presence of myelin figures in the cytoplasm indicate?
What does the presence of myelin figures in the cytoplasm indicate?
What is the effect of intracytoplasmic vacuoles in nonlethal injury?
What is the effect of intracytoplasmic vacuoles in nonlethal injury?
What is the primary function of proteins that leak from necrotic cells into the blood?
What is the primary function of proteins that leak from necrotic cells into the blood?
Which protein is specifically associated with cardiac muscle and is used as a marker for necrosis?
Which protein is specifically associated with cardiac muscle and is used as a marker for necrosis?
What occurs during the process of apoptosis?
What occurs during the process of apoptosis?
Which characteristic is associated with apoptotic cells?
Which characteristic is associated with apoptotic cells?
What does not occur in cells undergoing apoptosis?
What does not occur in cells undergoing apoptosis?
What is the primary consequence of plasma membrane damage in cells?
What is the primary consequence of plasma membrane damage in cells?
What type of injury can lead to increased degradation of cellular membranes?
What type of injury can lead to increased degradation of cellular membranes?
Which of the following is a key factor contributing to lysosomal membrane injury?
Which of the following is a key factor contributing to lysosomal membrane injury?
What is a significant outcome of lysosomal membrane damage?
What is a significant outcome of lysosomal membrane damage?
What role do mutations play in cancer development?
What role do mutations play in cancer development?
Which of the following is a major cause of cell injury?
Which of the following is a major cause of cell injury?
Which event occurs during increased signaling from IRE1 due to cellular stress?
Which event occurs during increased signaling from IRE1 due to cellular stress?
How can excessive dietary intake impact health?
How can excessive dietary intake impact health?
What triggers the activation of caspases in cells?
What triggers the activation of caspases in cells?
How does oxidative stress (ROS) primarily damage cellular membranes?
How does oxidative stress (ROS) primarily damage cellular membranes?
What are some physical agents that can damage cells?
What are some physical agents that can damage cells?
What is the basis of all diseases?
What is the basis of all diseases?
What is the role of chaperones during cellular stress?
What is the role of chaperones during cellular stress?
What happens during the sequence of events in cell injury?
What happens during the sequence of events in cell injury?
Which of the following conditions leads to irreversible cellular damage?
Which of the following conditions leads to irreversible cellular damage?
What effect does increased degradation during calcium activation have on cellular membranes?
What effect does increased degradation during calcium activation have on cellular membranes?
What does the deposition of abnormal substances affect?
What does the deposition of abnormal substances affect?
What are some consequences of cellular adaptations to stress?
What are some consequences of cellular adaptations to stress?
Which is NOT a mechanism that injurious stimuli use to damage cells?
Which is NOT a mechanism that injurious stimuli use to damage cells?
Which factor significantly contributes to common diseases like type 2 diabetes?
Which factor significantly contributes to common diseases like type 2 diabetes?
What is a key characteristic of necrosis?
What is a key characteristic of necrosis?
Which phenomenon is NOT associated with necrosis?
Which phenomenon is NOT associated with necrosis?
What typically leads to necrosis in cells?
What typically leads to necrosis in cells?
What occurs to the plasma membrane during necrosis?
What occurs to the plasma membrane during necrosis?
Which type of injury is necrosis most commonly associated with?
Which type of injury is necrosis most commonly associated with?
What is indicated by irreversible cell injury during necrosis?
What is indicated by irreversible cell injury during necrosis?
How is necrosis different from apoptosis?
How is necrosis different from apoptosis?
What is a consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction in necrosis?
What is a consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction in necrosis?
During necrosis, how do intracellular membranes behave?
During necrosis, how do intracellular membranes behave?
Which of the following accurately describes necrosis?
Which of the following accurately describes necrosis?
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Study Notes
Cell Injury
- Cell injury is the root of disease.
- Cell injury can be reversible or irreversible.
- Irreversible cell injury leads to cell death.
Causes of Cell Injury
- Hypoxia and ischemia
- Toxins
- Infections
- Immune reactions
- Genetic abnormalities
- Nutritional imbalances
- Physical agents
Mechanisms of Cell Injury
- Biochemical and structural changes occur in most cell types.
- Different stimuli cause injury through diverse biochemical mechanisms.
Cell Death
- Cell death is a key event in the development of many diseases.
- Apoptosis is a programmed cell death mechanism.
- Apoptosis eliminates unwanted cells without causing harmful inflammation.
Apoptosis
-
Causes:
- Loss of growth factors
- Lack of survival signals
- Decrease in hormone levels
- DNA damage
- Accumulation of misfolded proteins
- Viral proteins
- Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs)
-
Physiological Functions:
- Embryonic development
- Turnover of proliferative tissues (e.g., intestinal epithelium, lymphocytes)
- Involution of hormone-dependent tissues (e.g., endometrium)
- Removal of leukocytes after immune and inflammatory responses
- Elimination of self-reactive lymphocytes (prevents autoimmune diseases)
-
Pathological Functions:
- DNA damage
- Accumulation of misfolded proteins
- Viral infections
Cell Injury
- Cell injury can be reversible or irreversible, which ultimately leads to cell death
- Hydropic change or vacuolar degeneration are terms used to describe nonlethal injury
- Fatty change is the appearance of lipid vacuoles in the cytoplasm
- Eosinophilia is the staining of cytoplasm red by eosin dye, which is more pronounced in necrosis
- Myelin figures are collections of phospholipids derived from damaged cellular membranes
Mechanisms of Cell Injury
- Mitochondrial membrane damage disrupts oxidative phosphorylation and ATP generation
- Plasma membrane damage causes loss of osmotic balance, leading to influx of fluids and ions
- Lysosomal membrane damage releases lysosomal enzymes such as acid hydrolases into the cytoplasm
- Increased intracellular calcium leads to activation of phospholipases, which degrade the membrane
- Oxidative stress can cause direct damage to cell membranes
Necrosis
- Necrosis is the inevitable end result of irreversible cell injury
- Characteristics of necrosis:
- inability to restore mitochondrial function
- altered structure loss of function of the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes
- loss of structural integrity of DNA and chromatin
Apoptosis
- Apoptosis is a programmed cell death pathway
- Apoptosis involves activation of enzymes that degrade nuclear DNA and proteins
- Cells break down into fragments, giving the appearance of "falling off" which is the origin of the name
Cellular Adaptations to Stress
- Cells adapt to stress through various mechanisms such as:
- Atrophy: reduction in cell size
- Hypertrophy: increase in cell size
- Hyperplasia: increase in cell number
- Metaplasia: replacement of one cell type by another
Depositions of Abnormal Substances
- Amyloid: misfolded proteins that can accumulate in tissues
- Hemosiderin: iron-containing pigment that can accumulate in tissues
- Lipofuscin: pigment that is a sign of cellular aging and oxidative stress
Cell Aging
- Cellular aging is a complex process characterized by:
- reduced capacity for cell division
- accumulation of cellular damage
- increased susceptibility to disease
- decreased ability to repair damaged DNA
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